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Ethereal Fire: Antecedents of Radiology and Radiotherapy

¹ Department of Radiation Oncology, Levine Cancer Center, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 33 Kendall St., Worcester, MA 01605.

View larger version (122K): [in this window] [in a new window] [as a PowerPoint slide]   Fig. 1A —Simple machines that harnessed electricity. Improvements in frictional generator included replacement of sulfur globe with glass cylinder (M), incorporation of metal tines (P) and primary conductors (A and B) to collect charge, and inclusion of adjustable "spark gap" (between discharging rods D and E) to regulate discharge. (Reprinted from Beard GM, Rockwell AD. A practical treatise on the medical and surgical uses of electricity, 6th ed. New York, NY: Wm Wood & Co, 1888 [23])

View larger version (50K): [in this window] [in a new window] [as a PowerPoint slide]   Fig. 1B —Simple machines that harnessed electricity. Leyden jar, first capacitor, consisted of receptacle lined (inside and out) with separate foils. When the outside foil was grounded, large charge could be stored on inside. (Reprinted from Turner D. A manual of practical medical electricity, 4th ed. London, England: Bailliere, Tindall, & Cox, 1904:9)

View larger version (184K): [in this window] [in a new window] [as a PowerPoint slide]   Fig. 2 —Galvanism in gynecology, Tripier's technique. Electrodes in bladder and uterus caused localized contraction of uterine muscle, correcting retroflexed uterus. (Reprinted from Herdman WJ. The necessity for special education in electrotherapeutics. In: Bigelow HR. The international system of electro-therapeutics: for students, general practitioners, and specialists. Philadelphia, PA: F.A. Davis Company, 1894 [42])

View larger version (109K): [in this window] [in a new window] [as a PowerPoint slide]   Fig. 3A —Influence machines. Wimshurst machine (1878) consisted of one or more pairs of parallel glass discs, rotating at high speed in opposite directions. Discs had charged metallic sectors. Similar charges on opposing sectors mutually repelled charges onto collecting combs. Combs transmitted charges to Leyden jars, where they accumulated until discharged. (Reprinted from Thompson SP. Elementary lessons in electricity and magnetism. London, England: MacMillan & Co., 1895:62)

View larger version (142K): [in this window] [in a new window] [as a PowerPoint slide]   Fig. 3B —Influence machines. Influence machines were often massive, with multiple pairs of large discs, and they were capable of generating more than 100,000 volts. When accumulated charges in Leyden jars were large enough to overcome resistance of air separating prime conductors ("spark gap"), discharge would occur. By adjusting spark gap, magnitude and frequency of discharge were regulated. Note array of electrodes. (Reprinted from Liebig GA, Rohe GH. Practical electricity in medicine and surgery. Philadelphia, PA: F.A. Davis Company, 1890 [29])

View larger version (110K): [in this window] [in a new window] [as a PowerPoint slide]   Fig. 4 —Galvanic cabinet. Up to 60 batteries were kept in cabinet. Collector (large central dial) seamlessly recruited cells into circuit, allowing gradual increase or diminution of current without painful interruptions. This cabinet is also equipped with induction coil to step-up voltage. (Reprinted from Liebig GA, Rohe GH. Practical electricity in medicine and surgery. Philadelphia, PA: F.A. Davis Company, 1890 [29])

View larger version (97K): [in this window] [in a new window] [as a PowerPoint slide]   Fig. 5A —Portable faradic units. Hand-cranked dynamo for generating faradic current. (Reprinted from Turner D. A manual of practical medical electricity, 4th ed. London, England: Bailliere, Tindall, & Cox, 1904:120)

View larger version (147K): [in this window] [in a new window] [as a PowerPoint slide]   Fig. 5B —Portable faradic units. Galvano-faradic hybrid unit consisting of two dry cells and induction coil. (Reprinted from Liebig GA, Rohe GH. Practical electricity in medicine and surgery. Philadelphia, PA: F.A. Davis Company, 1890 [29])

View larger version (99K): [in this window] [in a new window] [as a PowerPoint slide]   Fig. 6A —High-frequency currents. In Oudin's resonator, rapidly oscillating current from outer foils of discharging Leyden jars passed through small solenoid (coil), which induced high-voltage, high-frequency current in larger coil. Spark gap was enclosed in box of tinted glass to muffle noise and dim bright flash of discharges. (Reprinted from Turner D. A manual of practical medical electricity, 4th ed. London, England: Bailliere, Tindall, & Cox, 1904:411)

View larger version (128K): [in this window] [in a new window] [as a PowerPoint slide]   Fig. 6B —High-frequency currents. Acting as induction coil, large solenoid painlessly induced high-frequency current within patient. (Reprinted from Kassabian MK. Rontgen rays and electrotherapeutics. Philadelphia, PA: JB Lippincott, 1907:148)

View larger version (117K): [in this window] [in a new window] [as a PowerPoint slide]   Fig. 7 —In static technique, patient, seated on insulated platform, acquired charge from electrode in hand. Charge could be drawn off by placing a grounded electrode near the body part to be treated. (Reprinted from Kassabian MK. Rontgen rays and electrotherapeutics. Philadelphia, PA: JB Lippincott, 1907:56)

View larger version (51K): [in this window] [in a new window] [as a PowerPoint slide]   Fig. 8A —General electrization. Central galvanization technique. (Reprinted from [23])

View larger version (199K): [in this window] [in a new window] [as a PowerPoint slide]   Fig. 8B —General electrization. Central galvanization by water-bath electrodes. Skin tolerates currents of up to 1 milliampere per square inch. Larger electrodes allowed greater currents to be comfortably delivered. Water baths maximized skin-electrode interface and reduced skin resistance, escalating current that could be applied. (Reprinted from Kassabian MK. Rontgen rays and electrotherapeutics. Philadelphia, PA: JB Lippincott, 1907:78)

View larger version (70K): [in this window] [in a new window] [as a PowerPoint slide]   Fig. 8C —General electrization. General faradization technique. (Reprinted from Beard GM, Rockwell AD. A practical treatise on the medical and surgical uses of electricity, 6th ed. New York, NY: Wm Wood & Co, 1888 [23])

View larger version (134K): [in this window] [in a new window] [as a PowerPoint slide]   Fig. 9A —Finsen's phototherapy. Due to expense of carbon arc lighting, single lamp directed light through four water-cooled focusing lenses, allowing several patients to be treated simultaneously. Each patient had nurse attendant to focus light to single small region for up to 1 hour. (Reprinted from Bie V. Finsen's phototherapy. Br Med J 1899; 2:825)

View larger version (165K): [in this window] [in a new window] [as a PowerPoint slide]   Fig. 9B —Finsen's phototherapy. Niels Finsen, pride of Faroe Islands.

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