AJR 2001; 177:1437-1445
© American Roentgen Ray Society
Electron Beam CT of the Coronary Arteries
Cross-Sectional Anatomy for Calcium Scoring
Alexander Sevrukov1,
Vladimir Jelnin and
George T. Kondos
1
All authors: Department of Medicine, Section of Cardiology, University of
Illinois at Chicago, 840 S. Wood St. (M/C 787), Chicago, IL 60612.
Received May 4, 2001;
accepted after revision July 3, 2001.
Address correspondence to G. T. Kondos.
Introduction
Scanning of the coronary arteries is increasingly used for the detection
and quantification of calcium deposits. Accurate evaluation requires a
thorough knowledge of coronary artery and venous anatomy
(Fig. 1) and an appreciation of
the common pitfalls of coronary artery imaging.
View larger version (26K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 1. —Coronary arteries and veins in left anterior oblique view.
Left coronary system consists of left main coronary artery (LMCA), left
circumflex artery (LCx), left anterior descending artery (LAD), diagonal
branches (DB), and obtuse marginal branch (OM). Right coronary system consists
of right coronary artery (RCA), conus branch (CB), right ventricular branch
(RVB), acute marginal branch (AM), posterior descending artery (PDA), and
posterior left ventricular branch (PLV). Coronary venous system is composed of
coronary sinus (CS), great cardiac vein (GCV), middle cardiac vein (MCV), and
small cardiac vein (SCV).
|
|
The nonopacified coronary arteries can be readily identified on electron
beam CT because the lower CT density of periarterial fat produces marked
contrast to blood in the coronary vessels, whereas the mural calcium is
evident because of its high CT density relative to blood
[1,2,3].
Methods
Electron beam CT scans were obtained with 100-msec scanning time and 3-mm
scan width using a C-150 scanner (Imatron, South San Francisco, CA). Images
were acquired in a single breath-hold and triggered from an ECG at 60% of the
R-R interval using an ECG trigger monitor (Ivy Biomedical, Branford, CT).
Electron beam CT image exporting was performed using NetraMD image analysis
software (ScImage, Los Altos, CA).
Heart Axis
Coronary artery imaging is carried out using neutral axis projection. The
heart is imaged in oblique planes because the heart axis is not perpendicular
to the scanner gantry in this configuration
(Fig. 2A).
View larger version (145K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 2A. —Position of heart in thoracic cavity and relationship between
ostia of left and right coronary arteries in 52-year-old asymptomatic man.
Coronal reconstructed electron beam CT image shows relationship of heart and
body axes. In neutral axis projection, body axis (A) is perpendicular to
scanner gantry (C). However, heart axis (B) in thoracic cavity is oriented
obliquely (angled approximately 25° from right to left and approximately
15° from posterior to anterior, relative to body axis). Because heart axis
is at angle to body axis, electron beam CT images obtained in this
configuration are oblique sections of heart. AAo = ascending aorta, PT =
pulmonary trunk, LV = left ventricle, RA = right atrium.
|
|
The ostia of the left main coronary artery and the right coronary artery
are located at nearly the same distance from the aortic valve when measured
along the axis of the ascending aorta. However, these vessels typically come
into view at different tomographic levels
(Fig. 2B).
View larger version (142K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 2B. —Position of heart in thoracic cavity and relationship between
ostia of left and right coronary arteries in 52-year-old asymptomatic man.
Curved multiplanar reformatted electron beam CT image shows distance between
left main coronary artery (LMCA) and right coronary artery (RCA), which may
span 9-27 mm (3-9 slices). LMCA typically comes into view at more cranial
tomographic levels than RCA. AAo = ascending aorta, LV = left ventricle.
|
|
Left Main Coronary Artery
The left main coronary artery arises from the left aortic sinus
(Fig. 2B) and passes behind the
pulmonary trunk. It usually travels horizontally or in a slightly cephalad
direction and divides into the left anterior descending and left circumflex
arteries (Fig. 3).
Occasionally, the left main coronary artery terminates in a trifurcation,
giving rise to an intermediate coronary artery that is directed laterally
[4] (Fig.
4A,4B).
View larger version (147K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 3. —Left main coronary artery bifurcation in 56-year-old
asymptomatic woman. Electron beam CT image shows left main coronary artery
(LMCA) dividing into left anterior descending artery (LAD) and left circumflex
artery (LCx). Point of LMCA division is important anatomic landmark for
delimitation of LMCA and LAD. Note close relationship of LCx and great cardiac
vein (GCV) in left atrioventricular sulcus. Any hyperattenuating foci arising
from GCV can be disregarded because calcium is not deposited in veins. AAo =
ascending aorta, PT = pulmonary trunk, LA = left atrium, RSPV = right superior
pulmonary vein, LSPV = left superior pulmonary vein, SVC = superior vena
cava.
|
|
View larger version (136K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 4A. —Intermediate coronary artery in 55-year-old man with chest
pain. Electron beam CT image shows intermediate coronary artery (ramus
intermedius, RI) arising between left anterior descending artery (LAD) and
left circumflex artery (LCx). Calcium is present at ostia of LCx and RI and in
proximal LAD. Calcium deposits detected in RI should be reported as LAD
calcium. AAo = ascending aorta, PT = pulmonary trunk, LA = left atrium, LAA =
left atrial appendage, RSPV = right superior pulmonary vein, LSPV = left
superior pulmonary vein, RAA = right atrial appendage, SVC = superior vena
cava.
|
|
View larger version (163K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 4B. —Intermediate coronary artery in 55-year-old man with chest
pain. Left anterior oblique caudal view of left coronary arteriogram shows RI
arising between LAD and LCx. Arteriogram shows 30% stenosis of proximal LAD
(arrowhead). DB = diagonal branch, OM1 = first obtuse marginal
branch, OM2 = second obtuse marginal branch.
|
|
Left Anterior Descending Artery and Its Branches
The left anterior descending artery passes initially behind the pulmonary
trunk and then comes forward between that vessel and the left atrial appendage
to reach the anterior interventricular sulcus
(Fig. 5). When the coronary
arteries are imaged from the base of the heart to the apex, the left anterior
descending artery is usually the first coronary artery that comes into view,
followed by the left main coronary artery
[5].
View larger version (126K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 5. —Proximal left anterior descending artery (LAD) in 49-year-old
asymptomatic man. Electron beam CT image shows LAD passing between pulmonary
trunk and left atrial appendage. Proximal LAD, which travels horizontally, is
shown in longitudinal section. Diagonal branch (DB) comes into view at this
level. This branch traverses anterolateral aspect of left ventricle. LMCA =
left main coronary artery, AAo = ascending aorta, PT = pulmonary trunk, LAA =
left atrial appendage, RSPV = right superior pulmonary vein, LSPV = left
superior pulmonary vein, RPA = right pulmonary artery, LPA = left pulmonary
artery, RAA = right atrial appendage.
|
|
The left anterior descending artery gives rise to septal and diagonal
branches. Diagonal branches are frequently identified on electron beam CT
scans (Fig. 5).
Left Circumflex Artery and Its Branches
Immediately after the left circumflex artery arises from the left main
coronary artery division, it angles posteriorly to pass below the left atrial
appendage and enters the left atrioventricular sulcus (Fig.
6A,6B).
A short segment of the proximal left circumflex artery is typically seen at
the level of the left main coronary artery division (Figs.
3 and
4A).
View larger version (152K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 6A. —Left circumflex artery (LCx) segments in 56-year-old
asymptomatic man. Electron beam CT image shows level of left ventricular
outflow tract (LVOT). Mid LCx adjoins great cardiac vein (GCV) medially in
left atrioventricular sulcus. Note calcium deposits in LCx and left anterior
descending artery (LAD). RVOT = right ventricular outflow tract, RA = right
atrium, RCA = right coronary artery, LA = left atrium, RIPV = right inferior
pulmonary vein, LIPV = left inferior pulmonary vein, DB = diagonal branch.
|
|
View larger version (166K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 6B. —Left circumflex artery (LCx) segments in 56-year-old
asymptomatic man. Electron beam CT image shows level of coronary sinus (CS).
Distal LCx courses in left atrioventricular sulcus and reaches nearly as far
as crux. On diaphragmatic surface of heart, diameter of LCx becomes
progressively smaller, whereas diameter of great cardiac vein gradually
enlarges until it ultimately joins CS. Note small calcium deposit in RCA. RA =
right atrium, LV = left ventricle, RV = right ventricle.
|
|
The left circumflex artery generally gives rise to three obtuse marginal
branches, of which the second is generally the largest
[4]. This branch is frequently
identified on electron beam CT scans (Fig.
7A,7B).
View larger version (148K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 7A. —Left circumflex artery (LCx) branches in 50-year-old man with
chest pain. Electron beam CT image shows LCx and two obtuse marginal branches
(OM 1 and OM 2) traversing posterolateral aspect of left ventricle. LAD = left
anterior descending artery, RCA = right coronary artery, GCV = great cardiac
vein, RA = right atrium, LA = left atrium, LIPV = left inferior pulmonary
vein, RVOT = right ventricular outflow tract, LVOT = left ventricular outflow
tract.
|
|
View larger version (195K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 7B. —Left circumflex artery (LCx) branches in 50-year-old man with
chest pain. Anteroposterior left coronary arteriogram shows obtuse marginal
branch (OM) of LCx. Arteriogram shows 20% stenosis of proximal LAD
(arrowhead). LMCA = left main coronary artery, SB = septal branch,
DB1 = first diagonal branch, DB2 = second diagonal branch, DB3 = third
diagonal branch.
|
|
Right Coronary Artery and Its Branches
The right coronary artery arises from the right aortic sinus (Fig.
2A,2B).
It passes first between the right ventricular outflow tract and the right
atrial appendage and then runs in the right atrioventricular sulcus (Fig.
8A,8B,8C,8D).
The initial 15- to 25-mm portion of the right coronary artery follows the
horizontal course. Hence, it is usually seen in longitudinal section
(Fig. 8B). The subsequent
segments of the proximal and mid right coronary arteries are cut in cross
section during their course in the right atrioventricular sulcus
(Fig. 8C).
View larger version (163K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 8A. —Right coronary artery (RCA) segments in 56-year-old woman
with chest pain. Left anterior oblique caudal view of right coronary
arteriogram shows 40% stenosis of proximal RCA (arrowhead). Note
large conus branch (CB), right ventricular branch (RVB), posterior descending
artery (PDA), and posterior left ventricular branch (PLV). 1, 2, and 3
indicate levels of imaging.
|
|
View larger version (145K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 8B. —Right coronary artery (RCA) segments in 56-year-old woman
with chest pain. At level 1, electron beam CT image shows proximal RCA
following horizontal course, which permits visualization of relatively long
segment of this vessel in longitudinal section. LAD = left anterior descending
artery, RVOT = right ventricular outflow tract, RA = right atrium, LA = left
atrium, AAo = ascending aorta, LCx = left circumflex artery.
|
|
View larger version (141K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 8C. —Right coronary artery (RCA) segments in 56-year-old woman
with chest pain. At level 2, electron beam CT image shows mid RCA following
right atrioventricular sulcus. This mid segment of artery is shown in cross
section. RA = right atrium, LA = left atrium, RV = right ventricle, LV = left
ventricle, LAD = left anterior descending artery, LCx = left circumflex
artery, RVB = right ventricular branch.
|
|
View larger version (164K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 8D. —Right coronary artery (RCA) segments in 56-year-old woman
with chest pain. At level 3, electron beam CT image shows distal RCA following
right atrioventricular sulcus toward crux. This distal segment of artery is
shown in longitudinal section. RV = right ventricle, LV = left ventricle, IVC
= inferior vena cava.
|
|
The distal right coronary artery begins just beyond the acute marginal
branch and passes horizontally along the diaphragmatic surface of the heart,
where it can be seen in longitudinal section
(Fig. 8D).
The right coronary artery branches, frequently identified on electron beam
CT scans, are the conus branch (Figs.
8A and
9A), the right ventricular
branches (Fig. 8C), the acute
marginal branch (Fig. 9B), and
the posterior descending artery (Fig.
10A), which arises from a dominant right coronary artery in 85% of
individuals [6]. Adjoining the
middle cardiac vein, the posterior descending artery runs anteriorly in the
posterior interventricular sulcus. The quantification of posterior descending
artery calcium is hindered in many individuals by excessive image noise
levels, which may be created by the liver entering the field of view at this
level [7]
(Fig. 10A).
View larger version (159K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 9A. —Proximal branches of right coronary artery (RCA) in
52-year-old man with chest pain. Electron beam CT image shows conus branch
(CB) of RCA. This branch passes anteriorly and upward over pulmonary trunk and
right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT). Note calcium in CB. RAA = right atrial
appendage, LAA = left atrial appendage, RPA = right pulmonary artery, LPA =
left pulmonary artery, LSPV = left superior pulmonary vein, AAo = ascending
aorta, SVC = superior vena cava.
|
|
View larger version (175K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 9B. —Proximal branches of right coronary artery (RCA) in
52-year-old man with chest pain. Electron beam CT image shows acute marginal
branch (AM) of RCA. This branch follows acute margin of heart. RA = right
atrium, LV = left ventricle, RV = right ventricle, IVC = inferior vena cava,
MCV = middle cardiac vein.
|
|
View larger version (148K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 10A. —Distal branches of right coronary artery in 65-year-old man
with chest pain. RV = right ventricle, LV = left ventricle, IVC = inferior
vena cava, L = liver. Electron beam CT image shows posterior descending artery
(PDA), which travels anteriorly in posterior interventricular sulcus, adjoined
by middle cardiac vein (MCV). Calcium deposits are present in proximal PDA and
posterior left ventricular (PLV) branch.
|
|
After giving rise to the posterior descending artery, a dominant right
coronary artery continues beyond the crux (a point on the diaphragmatic
surface of the heart where the left atrioventricular, right atrioventricular,
and posterior interventricular sulci come together) in the left
atrioventricular sulcus where it terminates, giving rise to the posterior left
ventricular branch (Figs. 10A
and 10B). Calcium deposits in
this branch may be misinterpreted as distal left circumflex artery
calcium.
View larger version (142K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 10B. —Distal branches of right coronary artery in 65-year-old man
with chest pain. RV = right ventricle, LV = left ventricle, IVC = inferior
vena cava, L = liver. Electron beam CT image shows PLV branch of right
coronary artery. This branch runs in left atrioventricular sulcus. Calcium
deposits are present in proximal PDA and PLV branch. MCV = middle cardiac
vein.
|
|
Common Errors and Pitfalls in Coronary Artery Calcium Detection
The misinterpretation of mitral annular and aortic root calcification may
result in a spuriously elevated coronary artery calcium score (Figs.
11 and
12). Left circumflex artery
calcium can be distinguished from mitral annular calcification by the presence
of a layer of periarterial fat. In contrast, mitral annular calcification is
intimately related to the myocardium, has irregular borders, and usually shows
an extensive amount of calcium.
View larger version (146K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 11. —Mitral annular calcification (MAC) in 68-year-old
asymptomatic man. Electron beam CT image at level of aortic valve (AoV) shows
calcification at left atrioventricular junction consistent with calcified
mitral valve annulus. Note calcified aortic valve leaflets. RA = right atrium,
LA = left atrium, RV = right ventricle, LV = left ventricle.
|
|
View larger version (128K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 12. —Aortic root calcification in 69-year-old asymptomatic man is
shown on electron beam CT image. Aortic root calcium may extend into ostia of
left main and right coronary arteries (arrowheads). Inclusion of
aortic root calcium in total coronary artery calcium score will result in
falsely high value. AAo = ascending aorta, PT = pulmonary trunk, LA = left
atrium, RAA = right atrial appendage, LAA = left atrial appendage, RSPV =
right superior pulmonary vein, LSPV = left superior pulmonary vein, SVC =
superior vena cava.
|
|
Intracoronary stents introduced during the percutaneous transluminal
coronary angioplasty are frequently indistinguishable from coronary artery
calcium deposits on electron beam CT scans, necessitating a thorough patient
history to identify any prior cardiovascular interventional procedures (Fig.
13A,13B,13C).
A similar error may result from implanted metal clips used during coronary
artery bypass surgery (Fig.
14A,14B).
View larger version (143K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 13A. —Intracoronary stents in 60-year-old man with history of
percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty. Intracoronary stents manifest
as hyperattenuating objects confined to vessel wall and characterized by
well-defined contour and circular appearance in cross section. Electron beam
CT image shows two intracoronary stents: one in main trunk of left anterior
descending artery (LAD) and one in diagonal branch (DB) of LAD. AAo =
ascending aorta, PT = pulmonary trunk, RAA = right atrial appendage, LA = left
atrium.
|
|
View larger version (149K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 13B. —Intracoronary stents in 60-year-old man with history of
percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty. Intracoronary stents manifest
as hyperattenuating objects confined to vessel wall and characterized by
well-defined contour and circular appearance in cross section. Electron beam
CT image shows intracoronary stent in proximal right coronary artery (RCA) and
calcium deposit in mid LAD. LA = left atrium, RAA = right atrial appendage,
RVOT = right ventricular outflow tract, LVOT = left ventricular outflow tract,
LCx = left circumflex artery.
|
|
View larger version (156K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 13C. —Intracoronary stents in 60-year-old man with history of
percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty. Intracoronary stents manifest
as hyperattenuating objects confined to vessel wall and characterized by
well-defined contour and circular appearance in cross section. Electron beam
CT image shows intracoronary stent producing characteristic circular
appearance in cross section of mid RCA. RA = right atrium, LA = left atrium,
RV = right ventricle, LV = left ventricle, LAD = left anterior descending
artery, OM = obtuse marginal branch, GCV = great cardiac vein.
|
|
View larger version (137K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 14A. —Implanted metal clips in 55-year-old man with history of
coronary artery bypass surgery. Electron beam CT image shows surgical clips
(arrows) on right aspect of ascending aorta (AAo) and in area of left
anterior descending artery. Note streak artifacts originating from metal
clips. PT = pulmonary trunk, RPA = right pulmonary artery, LAA = left atrial
appendage, LSPV = left superior pulmonary vein, SVC = superior vena cava.
|
|
View larger version (177K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 14B. —Implanted metal clips in 55-year-old man with history of
coronary artery bypass surgery. Electron beam CT image shows surgical clips
(curved arrow) in area of distal right coronary artery. Note streak
artifacts originating from metal clips. Calcium is present in distal right
coronary artery and posterior descending artery (PDA). IVC = inferior vena
cava, RA = right atrium, RV = right ventricle, MCV = middle cardiac vein.
|
|
The assessment of coronary artery calcium distribution may be difficult
when calcium in the left main coronary artery extends into the left anterior
descending and left circumflex arteries
(Fig. 15).
View larger version (158K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 15. —Calcium deposition at left main coronary artery bifurcation
in 52-year-old man with chest pain. Electron beam CT image shows left main
coronary artery (LMCA) calcium extending into both left anterior descending
(LAD) and left circumflex (LCx) arteries. Assignment of calcium deposits to
appropriate arteries may require manual segmentation. AAo = ascending aorta,
PT = pulmonary trunk, LA = left atrium, RSPV = right superior pulmonary vein,
SVC = superior vena cava, RAA = right atrial appendage.
|
|
High velocity of the right coronary artery during the cardiac cycle
[8] may result in a blurred
image of calcium deposits, which may lead to a falsely elevated right coronary
artery calcium score (Figs. 16
and 17).
View larger version (134K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 16. —Right coronary artery motion artifact in 56-year-old
asymptomatic woman. Electron beam CT image shows calcium (arrow) in
proximal right coronary artery. Crescent shape of calcium deposit indicates
motion artifact, common finding in proximal and mid portions of right coronary
artery. AAo = ascending aorta, RVOT = right ventricular outflow tract, RA =
right atrium, LA = left atrium.
|
|
View larger version (167K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
|
Fig. 17. —Right coronary artery calcium in 58-year-old man with chest
pain. Electron beam CT image shows right coronary artery calcium deposit with
well-defined borders (arrow). This normal image of right coronary
artery calcium is free of motion artifacts. RVOT = right ventricular outflow
tract, LVOT = left ventricular outflow tract, RA = right atrium, LA = left
atrium.
|
|
Acknowledgments
We thank David R. Klein and Grace Walczak for their valuable contributions
to the preparation of this manuscript.
References
-
Stanford W, Thompson BH. Imaging of coronary artery calcification:
its importance in assessing atherosclerotic disease. Radiol Clin
North Am 1999;37:257
-272[Medline]
-
Wexler L, Brundage B, Crouse J, et al. Coronary artery
calcification: pathophysiology, epidemiology, imaging methods, and clinical
implications—a statement for health professionals from the American
Heart Association. Circulation
1996;94:1175
-1192[Free Full Text]
-
Rumberger JA, Brundage BH, Rader DJ, Kondos GT. Electron beam
computed tomographic coronary calcium scanning: a review and guidelines for
use in asymptomatic persons. Mayo Clin Proc
1999;74:243
-252[Abstract]
-
Kondos GT, Shanes JG, Brundage BH. Coronary arteriography including
quantitative estimation of coronary artery stenosis. In: Parmley WW, Chaterjee
K, eds. Cardiology, vol. 1. Physiology, pharmacology,
diagnosis. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1986:1
-30
-
Rabin DN, Rabin S, Mintzer RA. A pictorial review of coronary
artery anatomy on spiral CT. Chest
2000;118:488
-491[Abstract/Free Full Text]
-
Bittl J, Levin D. Coronary arteriography. In: Braunwald E, ed.
Heart disease: a textbook of cardiovascular medicine.
Philadelphia: Saunders, 1997:240
-272
-
McCollough CH, Kaufmann RB, Cameron BM, Katz DJ, Sheedy PF 2nd,
Peyser PA. Electron-beam CT: use of calibration phantom to reduce variability
in calcium quantitation. Radiology
1995;196:159
-165[Abstract/Free Full Text]
-
Achenbach S, Ropers D, Holle J, et al. In-plane coronary arterial
motion velocity: measurement with electron-beam CT.
Radiology
2000;216:457
-463[Abstract/Free Full Text]
CiteULike 
Complore 
Connotea 
Del.icio.us 
Digg 
Reddit 
Technorati What's this?
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
|
|
 
B. Sundaram, S. Patel, N. Bogot, and E. A. Kazerooni
Anatomy and Terminology for the Interpretation and Reporting of Cardiac MDCT: Part 1, Structured Report, Coronary Calcium Screening, and Coronary Artery Anatomy
Am. J. Roentgenol.,
March 1, 2009;
192(3):
574 - 583.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. J. W. Sandstede, J. Stoffels, F. Wendel, C. Ritter, M. Beer, and D. Hahn
Different Reconstruction Intervals for Exclusion of Coronary Artery Calcifications by Retrospectively Gated MDCT
Am. J. Roentgenol.,
January 1, 2006;
186(1):
193 - 197.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
H. K. Pannu, T. G. Flohr, F. M. Corl, and E. K. Fishman
Current Concepts in Multi-Detector Row CT Evaluation of the Coronary Arteries: Principles, Techniques, and Anatomy
RadioGraphics,
October 1, 2003;
23(90001):
S111 - 125.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
Top
Introduction
Methods
