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1 Istituto di Radiologia Diagnostica ed Interventistica, Università di
Torino, Azienda Ospedaliera San Giovanni Battista di Torino, Ospedale
Molinette, Corso Bramante 84, 10126 Torino, Italy.
2 Dipartimento di Biologia Animale e dell'Uomo, Laboratorio di Antropologia
Fisica, Università di Torino, 10126 Torino, Italy.
3 Soprintendenza al Museo delle Antichità Egizie di Torino, 10126 Torino,
Italy.
Received February 15, 2002;
accepted after revision August 27, 2002.
Address correspondence to F. Cesarani.
Abstract
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MATERIALS AND METHODS. We studied 13 mummies from the Egyptian Museum in Torino, Italy, dating from Dynasty III to Dynasty IV (2650-2450 B.C.) and from the Ptolemaic period (332-30 B.C.) to the Roman period (30 B.C.-A.D. 395), using a multidetector CT unit with a single volumetric acquisition of the whole body, including lower extremities, followed by 3D reconstruction. All mummies were completely wrapped; preservation conditions of external wrappings were good in all.
RESULTS. The general setting, embalming techniques, sex and age assessment (from body and skeletal features), anthropometric measurements (cranial measurements and evaluation of stature), conditions of the skeleton and soft tissue, any abnormalities, and the presence of foreign objects were evaluated in each mummy, and a detailed report was drawn up. Virtual unwrapping permitted the identification of physiognomy of the whole dehydrated body placed beneath the wrappings; 3D reconstruction and virtual fly-through navigation allowed further evaluations of the internal parts of the body.
CONCLUSION. The results obtained with this protocol provided important anthropologic and paleopathologic information that would have been impossible to obtain by other noninvasive techniques. Moreover, this method has great potential for studies of conservation, anthropology, and paleopathology of other Egyptian and ancient human remains. Multidisciplinary cooperation among anthropologists, paleopathologists, Egyptologists, and radiologists is essential.
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The environmental conditions of Egyptian deserts, such as dryness, sterility, and porosity of the sand, played a fundamental role in the preservation of the bodies. In fact, many naturally preserved mummies have been found buried in the ground that were preserved without the help of artificial methods. The most ancient burials show the deceased in oval graves, with the body in the fetal position, wrapped in a mat or laid in a basket. With the introduction of embalming techniques, the deceased were wrapped in bandages, initially in the fetal and later in a supine position.
According to the ancient Egyptians, the preservation of the body was the necessary condition for the survival of the soul after death. Starting during the predynastic period to Naqada II (3500-3000 B.C.), they tried to preserve the bodies as best as possible. According to Herodotus (The Histories [1]), the Egyptians went from the simple dehydration of the body with natron (a mixture of sodium salt, potassium, magnesium, and aluminium) to the dehydration and maceration of the inner organs with cedar oil. Then they progressed to the most complete and sophisticated embalming technique. In addition to dehydration with natron, this technique included the removal of the brain and inner organs (except for the heart), which were prepared separately and placed in four canopic jars.
Before Dynasty XVIII (1540-1295 B.C.), evisceration was performed with a cut, mainly vertical, on the left flank. During later periods, the cut was performed from the iliac crest to the inguinal region in an oblique direction. The wound was then covered with resin and, in the case of important individuals, with a metallic plaque that was usually made of gold. From the time of Tuthmosis III (1479-1425 B.C.), the cut was sutured, but this practice became common only after Dynasty XX (1190-1170 B.C.). In all cases, there followed the procedure of wrapping the dehydrated body, performed with varying levels of precision. It was only during the Third Intermediate period and the Late period (1070-332 B.C.) that the body was preserved using bitumen, a natural resinlike substance, making the procedure faster and cheaper.
The position of the arms was important: they were placed according to the fashion of the times. Women were left with the arms beside the body, with the palms turned toward the thighs, whereas men had their hands placed over the pubic area. During Dynasty XVIII, the arms, separately wrapped, were crossed over the chest with the hands touching the shoulders. During Dynasty XXI (1070-945 B.C.), placement of the arms returned to the former position.
The will expressed by ancient Egyptians "...no harm shall come to my body. It will remain forever immutable, unchanged. It shall resist destruction on Earth. For all Eternity" (in chapter 145, Book of the Dead of the Ancient Egyptians [2]) has been taken into consideration in studies on mummies only during the past few decades, in which the need to analyze antiquities and at the same time preserve their integrity has become mandatory. In particular, noninvasive methods allow the study of anatomy and macroscopic content.
Radiology represents an accurate, noninvasive method of evaluation, and its application has been used since the introduction of X rays [3]. CT, in particular helical CT, followed by multiplanar and three-dimensional (3D) reconstructions, has improved both the quality and the quantity of available information of specimens not directly visible under the wrappings. The use of CT is increasingly important, especially among anthropologists and paleopathologists.
Although different CT studies of Egyptian mummies followed by 3D reconstructions of parts of the body have already been described [4, 5, 6, 7, 8], few of them have used updated helical CT units with whole-body exploration followed by postprocessing 3D reconstruction (Hoffman H et al., presented at the Radiological Society of North America meeting, November 2000). Therefore, we decided to use the multidetector CT (MDCT) technology to study the whole body, including extremities, of samples of well-preserved Egyptian mummies belonging to the collection of the Egyptian Museum in Torino, Italy. This article discusses our scanning technique, 3D reconstruction modalities, imaging findings, and results.
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The preservation conditions of the external wrappings were good or excellent in all cases. Each mummy we investigated was protected by a sealed plastic bag and placed on a wooden board. The items in the collection of the Egyptian Museum are numbered using four indexes: CAT designates the Catalogo Antico Torino; CGT, Catalogo Generale Torino; PROVV, Provvisorio; and SUPPL, Supplemento al CAT.
Some researchers in our group had already studied all specimens several years before with conventional X rays [9]. In this study, each mummy was examined by a single volumetric acquisition of the whole body, defined as a single-shot whole-body acquisition, with a MDCT scanner (LightSpeed QX/i; General Electric Medical Systems, Milwaukee, WI). Preliminary anteroposterior and laterolateral scout images were obtained to include the whole body and optimize the field of view. The scanning parameter for amperage was set at a level that would not overheat the X-ray tube. The scanning parameters used to study the whole body of an adult mummy are shown in Table 1. In examining the mummies of the three children, we used 278 scans in the first; 757, in the second; and 906, in the last. In some instances, the skull was studied in great detail.
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At the beginning, a PC workstation consisting of two 700-MHz parallel kernel processors and 1024 MB RAM (Kayak; Hewlett Packard, Chicago, IL) and then an updated Precision 530 workstation with dual processors Intel Xeon 1.7GHz and 2048 MB RAM (Dell Computer; Round Rock, TX) with version 2.2 and 2.5 Vitrea software (Vital Images, Fairfield, IA) were used to analyze axial scans and obtain multiplanar and 3D reconstruction. Virtual endoscopic images were also obtained using a dedicated software (Smooth Navigator) installed on a Sun Workstation (Advantage Windows 3.1; General Electric Medical Systems).
We used postprocessing evaluations divided into four steps to accomplish the complete study of each mummy. The first step was the cine-view evaluation of the axial scans, using different ranges of window width and window level parameters to identify structures with different densities. After this step was the analysis of the external aspect of the mummy, automatically 3D-reconstructed by the software (Fig. 1A). The third step was the virtual removal of the bandages with one of two modalities. With the first technique (Figs. 1B,1C,1D), it is necessary to manually separate the bandages from the superficial dried tissues of the mummy, delimitating the layers of bandages on the whole circumference of the body on axial scans, and then to exclude the layers from the reconstruction. The second modality uses preset reconstruction algorithms for soft tissues with varying window width parameters to obtain the progressive elimination of external layers with a density lower than that of dried skin, starting from the bandages. The fourth and final step was to proceed with the electronic measurements for anthropometric studies (Figs. 2 and 3A).
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We analyzed the embalming technique for each mummy. Different embalming practices can be detected from the presence of foreign objects; stucco plaster-soaked linen wrappings; and the use of resins, wax, bitumen, metal, wood, mud, sawdust, or other materials. Various observations about these practices include the position of the body, arms, hands, and legs; the location of the incision for the extraction of the viscera (with measurements and orientation) and how it was closed (stitched or held together with resins or metal plaques); the presence of incisions for under-skin stuffing with sawdust, sand, or mud (for mummies of Dynasty XXI); whether the removal of the brain was effectuated and, if so, in which part of the cranium the break was done; whether viscera were extracted, and if, so, which ones were removed and where they were repositioned inside or outside the body; whether evisceration was done via the anus; and whether the genitals and dummy mummies or restored mummies were present. Furthermore, Egyptologists can benefit from information provided by the presence of amulets, plaques, bead nets, phylacteries, and other items that are important for researching religious beliefs.
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All mummies, except one referred to as "the Bundle" (Fig. 4A, 4B, 4C, 4D), were supine, with the upper extremities in varying positions: six with extended arms and hands laid flat over the pubic region, three with arms extended along the body, and two with crossed arms and hands laid flat on the chest. Once completely evaluated, four of the 12 remaining mummies showed total absence of brain material and, in two of these, an ethmoid interruption was clearly identified (Figs. 1E and 1F). Different amounts of cerebral material were visible in the remaining eight. Residual cerebral tissue can be defined as cerebriform material layered in the lower part of skull as the result of gravity. This detail was confirmed by virtual endoscopy. It is important to note that the presence of bandages and other substances will produce a different image. Various quantities of residual meningeal sheets were still evident in several mummies.
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Eleven of 12 mummies were eviscerated. In the oldest one, the Bundle, (SUPPL 14061; dated from Dynasty III to Dynasty IV, 2650-2450 B.C.) it was possible to recognize some of the inner dehydrated organs. In seven mummies, we detected an incision on the left flank; no excision was seen in the other five. In one case, a metallic plaque was evident. In the mummies of children, we found wooden poles inserted through the fragile bodies to reinforce and straighten the skeleton. Bandage thickness varied according to different parts of the body, the technique, and the period of the embalming procedure.
In each mummy, sex and age assessment was based on body and skeletal features. Five mummies were males, six were females; in two (SUPPL 5270, SUPPL 5271), sex was impossible to determine. One mummy was determined to have been 4-5 years old at death; one, approximately 6 years; three, 20-25 years; one, 25-30 years; one, approximately 30 years; three, 30-35 years; one, 35-40 years; and one, 45-50 years.
Cranial measurements were performed on reformatted orthogonal sagittal and coronal CT images to calculate the main anthropometric indexes. Twenty-nine measurements and 15 cranial indexes were selected from those most frequently used in osteologic studies. The considered cranial indexes and the results in one mummy (CGT 13023, PROVV 731) are presented in Table 2. The set of measurements was selected from anthropologic literature, and the details of various procedures for estimations may be found in Martin and Saller [10].
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Evaluation of stature was made on maximum-intensity-projection mid-sagittal reconstruction using a thick slab to obtain a view of the tarsal bone. In supine mummies, the length of the body was calculated from vertex to tarsal bone, including the soft tissues. In some cases, neck flexion reduced the accuracy of measurement. Stature data were as follows: 93.9, 110, 149, 152, 2 x 153, 154, 158, 159, 163, and 180 cm. In the case of the mummy positioned in the fetal position, the stature (163 cm) was estimated by measuring the length of long bones (femur and tibia) and using particular algorithms to straighten the whole body. The set of measurements and details of the procedures performed were taken from the anthropologic literature [11].
Small hyperdense foreign objects, such as pins and small jewels (Fig. 5A, 5B), were found in some cases, and a headrest, presumed to be made of wood according to its density values, was found inserted among the bandages of the mummy in the fetal position (the Bundle, SUPPL 14061, dated between Dynasty III and Dynasty IV, 2650-2450 B.C.) (Fig. 4C). Wooden poles to reinforce and keep the embalmed body straight were detected inside the mummies of two children. The mummy of one child (SUPPL 5270) was dated between Dynasty XXII (945-712 B.C.) and Dynasty XXIII (828-712 B.C.) and the other (CAT 2245), between the Ptolemaic (332-30 B.C.) and Roman (30 B.C.-395 A.D.) periods.
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Packages containing embalming materials were seen in the thoracic and abdominal cavities and between the lower extremities. We did not identify organlike structures inside the packages.
Dentition was evaluated on axial CT scans and on multiplanar and 3D orthopantomographiclike reconstructions. The 3D reconstructions were obtained by creating curved multiplanar images (Fig. 6). Dental conditions were seriously compromised (absence of many teeth, multiple carious lesions, severe occlusal surface wear, high grade of alveolar crest absorbtion) in some mummies, whereas in others they were excellent. Three-dimensional images accurately showed the masticatory surfaces after the electronic removal of the opposite dental arcade (Fig. 3B). Some cases showed periapical bone absorption, indicating a previous phlogistic condition. Patterns of occlusal surface wear and disease (such as caries and abscesses) are influenced by the nutritional quality and physical characteristics of food, and their evaluation contributes to reconstruction of dietary conditions.
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In all mummies, the temporal bone was studied thoroughly, and ear structures were assessed. This study revealed normal aspect of temporal bone and ear, with absence of such pathologic findings as bone destruction or ossicle dislocation. Complete integrity of the auricle was observed in several cases because the cartilage and superficial soft-tissue layers had been perfectly preserved. Our evaluation of the ocular regions confirmed the removal of native bulbs and their substitution with bulblike structures.
We conducted a thorough examination of the skeletons of all mummies to assess whether congenital abnormalities were present, but none was found. Acquired pathologic conditions, such as the deformation of the arthroses of the spine, were present in some mummies; no radiologic signs of osteomyelitis were found. We found fractures of the tibial plates and femur condyles in one mummy, multiple rib fractures in the mummy of a child, and a sternal fracture in another adult mummy. The absence of signs of bone healing suggests that the fractures occurred after death, possibly during the embalming procedure.
In each mummy, we confirmed the removal of lungs and intraperitoneal organs and their substitution with different amounts of packaging (except in the Bundle) and the presence of mediastinal structures and retroperitoneal organs. Aortic wall calcifications were detected in one mummy.
Virtual fly-through endoscopy (Fig. 7) was performed in several hollow structures, including the skull, maxillary sinuses, oropharyngeal cavity, trachea, tympanic cavities, emptied chest, and aorta. Virtual endoscopy offered an inside view of the body that had previously been possible to attain only through surgical and invasive techniques.
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In the past, mummies that were found in poor condition—some of which had been unwrapped—were studied with anthropologic and paleopathologic methods to reveal embalming techniques, possible anatomic abnormalities, and, in some cases, diseases or the cause of death. Others had been unwrapped manually for the same purpose. Nevertheless, many well-preserved mummies in this museum (some of which are unknown to the public) can still be examined with noninvasive methods. The increasing need to preserve their integrity, which many times conflicts with the interest of experts and the curiosity of the public to know what is hidden beneath the wrappings, encouraged us to set up a study with an MDCT unit, in cooperation with the superintendent of the Egyptian Museum and the Department of Human and Animal Biology, Laboratorio di Antropologia Fisica, University of Torino.
Conventional radiology has made a great contribution to the study and conservation of human remains [3, 9], beginning a few months after the discovery of X rays. The first CT studies performed on Egyptian mummies were reported by Lewin and Harwood-Nash in 1977 [13], when Egyptian mummies were studied with CT, and anthropometric measurements of the cranium were taken. In further studies, Lewin [14] reported 3D reconstruction of limited parts of the body of Egyptian mummies, in particular of the skull and brain. In one case, the possible cause of death was identified as a chronically infected dental cyst [6, 12].
In the study reported by Marx and D'Auria [4] of 15 wrapped human Egyptian mummies, a 3D reconstruction was created of the head and the body of one mummy. The acquisition data used for the head and various parts of the body differed: the axial sections of the head and neck were 2-mm thick with a 2-mm interval, whereas the chest, abdomen, and pelvis were evaluated using 4-mm-thick slices with a 4-mm interval.
Axial CT images in our study also provided much information of anatomic and Egyptologic interest. Moreover, the volumetric reconstructions gave us information as to how the mummified humans looked in life and how successful was the art of the embalmer. Surface details were seen that were not depicted on axial images.
The slice thickness was also not the same on different parts of the body in the study carried out by Baldock et al. [5] (2 mm for the skull, 1 mm through the teeth, and 4 mm through the rest of the body), which led to different accuracy in the reconstruction. The chief advantages of MDCT are its capability to perform a large-volume examination in a short time during a single acquisition and its thin scanning (2.5- or 1.25-mm) and reconstruction (1.25- or 0.7-mm) indexes. As a result, a complete body examination may be performed with great accuracy. With the advent of high-end performance graphics workstations and biomedical image processing software packages, multiplanar projections and 3D reconstructions became the research tools for analyzing volume data sets [15].
MDCT is the ideal tool to access the internal structure of precious anthropologic items such as human remains from the past. Moreover, stereolithographic and fused deposition modeling of volume data sets will permit the production of accurate models of skeletons and, in particular, of the skull. Because of the sophisticated technology of the CT unit, which has a high thermal X-ray tube capacity, and the powerful workstations, we were able to obtain a single volumetric acquisition of the entire body with thin, uniform slices and highly accurate reconstruction of the whole body, including the lower extremities.
We found that a slice thickness of 2.5 mm with a reconstruction interval of 1.25 mm were the best parameters to obtain precise multiplanar and 3D reconstructions. We decided to use 2.5-mm sections at 1.25-mm intervals because these scanning data were the thinnest possible in relationship to the whole-body acquisition length that the unit could perform without damage to the X-ray tube. However, this is an equipment limitation: other options would use 3.75- or 5-mm slice thickness with higher reconstruction intervals, but in all these options, the image quality would be lower than that obtained with the chosen scan protocol. When thinner slices (1.25 mm) with a lower reconstruction index (0.7 mm) were acquired for further evaluation of the skull, 3D reconstruction gave even more detailed anatomic information.
The postprocessing algorithms used in our study permitted a complete and systematic study of the whole mummified body. The first analysis of the axial CT scans, particularly if performed in cine-view modality (which gives a continuous scroll of the whole data) was useful in obtaining general information as to the thickness of the wrappings, the presence and location of foreign bodies, and the condition of the body, including the skeleton and the presence and state of inner organs.
On the basis of our experience, we recommend the following steps for the systematic examination of human remains using MDCT. First, acquire precise preliminary anteroposterior and laterolateral scout images to plan the examination of the whole body and optimize the field of view, paying attention to include the most cranial and caudal limits of the mummy. Next, choose an appropriate amperage setting that does not exceed the thermal capability of the X-ray tube. Then select the minimal scanning thickness permitted by the CT unit. Finally, make an accurate evaluation of axial CT scans before performing multiplanar and 3D reconstructions. Our technique is similar to that used to study another mummy, discovered in the Tyrolean Alps in 1991 at the border between Austria and Italy. The well-known "Ice Man," who lived approximately 5300 years ago during the Neolithic or early Bronze Age, underwent several series of tomographic scanning of the skull with contiguous 2-mm-thick individual sections and 3-mm intervals on helical CT. A stereolithographic reproduction of the skull of the Ice Man was obtained to allow direct observation on the model [16].
From the first default 3D reconstruction, we were able to depict the general conditions of the body and the position of the extremities. This procedure turned out to be particularly useful when we examined a mummy known as the Bundle, which probably dates from between Dynasty III and Dynasty IV. Conventional radiographs had shown only a large mass of bones, and doubt existed as to the presence of a whole human body. The initial scout image, and then the more accurate 3D reconstruction, confirmed the integrity of an adult body that had been placed in the fetal position according to burial techniques typical from the predynastic period to the end of the Old Kingdom. Particular algorithms were then used to "straighten" the body so that an approximate measurement of the stature could be obtained.
The unwrapping techniques we used made it possible to depict the soft superficial dehydrated tissues. When the bandages were removed manually on the workstation from the soft tissues on cranial to caudal scans of the whole body, taking about 20 min to unwrap completely, it was seen that, in some cases, the accuracy of the reconstruction was compromised because of imprecise cutting of the bandages. When we used the other technique, which was performed by gradually modifying the window-width parameters of default reconstruction for soft tissues, we were able to obtain almost the same result in less time. In a study published by David and Archbold [17], the radiologist described the removal of the layers of cartonnage (linen and plaster forming an inner coffin) and linen wrappings by deciding which density values to include in a particular picture. We likewise had difficulty at times in distinguishing between cartilage and soft tissue because of the hardening caused by age and the presence of resins. We had to make several attempts before succeeding. In our opinion, manual unwrapping, even if more time-consuming, provides images of higher quality than those obtained with automatic unwrapping.
We were able to confirm the integrity of the skin and to identify the presence of wounds and the typical incision in the left abdominal flank that was made by the embalmers to remove the viscera and introduce different kinds of packages. In most cases, we used axial scanning to determine the presence or absence of inner organs, the volume of the organs that were present, and either the presence of dehydrated organs or the technique used for their removal. Two mummies in particular were identified as not having dehydrated brain tissue and showing an interruption of the ethmoid cells. This breakage was done during the embalming process to remove the brain through the nasal cavity. Mummies of an earlier date have intact ethmoid cells and the presence of dehydrated brain tissue, suggesting that excerebration was not performed during the earlier burial periods. However, this finding cannot be taken as sufficient evidence for dating the practice.
Curve-reformatted orthopantomographiclike reconstruction made it possible to carry out a precise exploration of the dental arcades, allowing an evaluation of the siting and aspect of the teeth and maxillary bone. After electronic removal of the opposite arcade, occlusal surfaces showing different degrees of wear due to age and diet were well depicted.
In any human population, adult male and female skeletons differ in both general shape and size. In our study, the estimation of sex was based on observations of morphologic features of the body, such as the pelvis and the skull. References for extensive discussion of male and female skeletal differences and details of various procedures for estimations are summarized by Acsádi and Nemeskéri [18] and Ferembach et al. [19]. In adults, the age-related changes discussed here are based on the evaluation of the degree of closure of cranial sutures, dental attrition, tooth loss, arthritic changes, and osteoporosis. The study of immature human remains is based on the evaluation of dental calcification and eruption, development and fusion of epiphyses, unification of primary ossification centers in the vertebrae and pelvis, and long bone measurements. The article by Ferembach et al. [19] provides a detailed discussion of age-associated changes and the techniques commonly used to link maturation stages with chronologic age.
Cranial measurements have been used to describe individuals and to compare groups; our comparison was based on indexes that combined two dimensions as an indicator of shape. Postcranial measurements (still under investigation) represent a source of information about age (measurements on immature remains), sex, morphology, and activity patterns (measurements on adult remains).
The stature data for ancient Egyptians given in the literature were obtained from either direct measurement of the skeleton or radiography of the wrapped body. In most mummies of our series, the supine position, the correct normal position of the skeleton, and the absence of distorted or fragmented bones led to a reliable anthropologic result. High accuracy was possible because dried soft tissues were included in the measurement. Dimensions of long bones (femoral and tibial lengths) have proved useful in estimation of the stature when it cannot be measured directly, as in the case of the Bundle. The set of measurements we used was selected from anthropologic literature; the details of various procedures for estimations may be found in Martin and Saller [10]. Knowledge of these biologic data allows the comparison of stature and other anthropometric measurements of our series with the same data from Egyptian populations already reported in the literature [20].
As did previous investigators (Hoffman H et al., RSNA meeting, November 2000), we performed virtual navigation in hollow structures filled with air, including the trachea, maxillary sinuses, vessels, and the spinal canal, or in residual cavities, such as the chest, where no bandages were present. This technique permitted an endoscopic visualization of structures that otherwise could have been evaluated only with invasive techniques [21] and, in our study, aided in the confirmation of the presence of dehydrated cerebriform tissue in the skull.
A wooden headrest, a metallic plaque on the abdomen, pins, and small jewels were among the foreign objects we identified during our study. Findings of aortic-wall calcifications indicate that atherosclerotic alterations were already present in the elderly Egyptian population. External, middle, and inner ear structures were well depicted in each mummy, showing no substantial anatomic abnormalities. We thoroughly studied temporal bones and ear structures to assess pathologic condition because we could expect wide diffusion of inflammatory middle ear diseases in the era before antibiotics were developed; however, in this series, no abnormality was evident.
In conclusion, MDCT is a fundamental tool for the study of mummified bodies, allowing numerous noninvasive investigations of different structures. The protocol we describe allows an accurate depiction of the whole body of the mummies, providing results that are not achievable with conventional radiography or single-detector helical CT. The use of MDCT is likely to increase in the future, especially in association with 3D reconstruction and rapid-prototyping stereolithographic techniques that allow the creation of a material copy of the mummy. Moreover, it is possible that using boosting techniques could permit the virtual addition of soft-tissue thickness to the entire dehydrated body, thus, in essence, reconstructing the ancient physiognomy.
From our first experience and evaluations, we have noted the potential benefits of MDCT for endeavors in several scientific and historic fields. Through multidisciplinary cooperation among anthropologists, paleopathologists, and radiologists, CT studies improve the knowledge of our human historic heritage and make a contribution to the integrity of the remains. In our opinion, the methods of investigation we describe offer great potential in fields such as restoration (e.g., verifying bandages and cartonnage conditions, body preservation), forensic sciences, and the iconography of amulets and jewels.
Acknowledgments
We thank Felipe Cardenas-Arroyo for his invaluable help in revising the
manuscript.
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