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AJR 2005; 184:720-733
© American Roentgen Ray Society

Review

Pattern-Based Differential Diagnosis in Pulmonary Vasculitis Using Volumetric CT

Katharina Marten1, Pierre Schnyder2, Eckart Schirg3, Mathias Prokop4, Ernst J. Rummeny1 and Christoph Engelke1

1 Department of Radiology, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University Munich, Ismaningerstrasse 22, Munich 81675, Germany.
2 Department of Radiology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vadois, Rue du Bugnon 46, Lausanne 1011, Switzerland.
3 Department of Radiology, Hanover Medical School, Carl Neuberg Strasse 1, Hanover 30625, Germany.
4 Department of Radiology, Universitair Medisch Centrum Utrecht, Postbus 85500, Utrecht 3508 GA, The Netherlands.

Received March 15, 2004; accepted after revision August 26, 2004.

 
Address correspondence to K. Marten (katharina.marten{at}roe.med.tum.de).


Introduction
Top
 Introduction
The Role of CT...
 CT Examination Techniques
 CT-Morphologic Patterns in...
 Conclusion
 References
 
Pulmonary vasculitis is an inflammatory process involving the pulmonary vasculature that may cause destruction of the vascular wall with ensuing ischemic damage to lung tissue [1]. Vasculitis may occur in a variety of systemic and primary pulmonary vascular disorders. Most entities induce overlapping disease patterns such as pneumonitis with facultative capillaritis, diffuse alveolar damage, acute pulmonary hemorrhage, inflammatory obstruction of central pulmonary arteries down to small vessels with secondary pulmonary hypertension, or interstitial lung disease. Therefore, the clinical symptoms are nonspecific. An overlap of symptoms and the frequent lack of the full clinical picture limit the value of the established vasculitis classification systems of the Chapel Hill conference [2] (Table 1) and the American College of Rheumatology. It is in this light that a potential value of a morphologic categorization of vasculitic changes becomes apparent [3–13] (Table 2).


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  		TABLE 1 Disorders Included and Those not Included in The Chapel Hill Nomenclature [2]

 

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  		TABLE 2 CT–Morphologic Characteristics of Pulmonary Vasculitis Syndromes

 

We have grouped pulmonary vasculitis along CT–morphologic patterns into entities characterized by large arterial aneurysmal versus stenotic disease, focal arterial versus diffuse alveolar hemorrhage, and pulmonary arterial hypertension. This article will familiarize radiologists with these features reflecting major processes of pulmonary vascular inflammation and describe ancillary CT findings that are helpful for the differential diagnosis.


The Role of CT in the Differential Diagnosis of Pulmonary Vasculitis
Top
 Introduction
 The Role of CT...
CT Examination Techniques
 CT-Morphologic Patterns in...
 Conclusion
 References
 
MDCT angiography, encompassing high-resolution imaging of the chest, represents the cornerstone in the radiologic workup of pulmonary vasculitic disorders. In addition to its diagnostic merits, MDCT angiography can indicate the need for further clinical tests, imaging, or invasive diagnostics and can direct medical treatment during follow-up.

In patients with large-vessel vasculitis, MDCT angiography is valuable in depicting pulmonary arterial wall thickening as late enhancement (Fig. 1). Pulmonary arterial wall thickening can progress to stenoocclusive disease and can result in pulmonary oligemia and infarction of the dependent lung periphery or give way to evolution of arterial aneurysms as a facultative cause of massive pulmonary hemorrhage (Figs. 2A and 2B). Acute arterial hemorrhage has the appearance of focal to lobar air-space consolidation often with relatively marginal areas of centrilobular ground-glass opacity.



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  		Fig. 1. —32-year-old woman with Takayasu's arteritis. 4-MDCT angiogram shows inflammatory wall thickening of right main and left lower lobe arteries (arrowheads) with evidence of pulmonary artery trunk dilatation (asterisk) due to pulmonary hypertension.

 


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  		Fig. 2A. —54-year-old man with Hughes-Stovin syndrome. Single-detector CT angiograms show right second segmental and lower lobe artery aneurysms (black asterisks) with infarction (white asterisk, A) of right posterior upper lobe segment. (Courtesy of Paul L. Molina, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC)

 


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  		Fig. 2B. —54-year-old man with Hughes-Stovin syndrome. Single-detector CT angiograms show right second segmental and lower lobe artery aneurysms (black asterisks) with infarction (white asterisk, A) of right posterior upper lobe segment. (Courtesy of Paul L. Molina, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC)

 

Alveolar hemorrhage secondary to extensive parenchymal small-vessel vasculitis is typically more diffuse and initially causes more widespread lobular ground-glass opacification with gravity-dependent density gradients through to air-space consolidation, often with interspersed areas of ground-glass opacity. In the process of resorption of intraalveolar blood, parenchymal abnormality is accompanied by interlobular and intralobular interstitial thickening superimposed on areas of ground-glass opacity (Figs. 3A, 3B, and 3C), which may give rise to the appearance of crazy paving [14].



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  		Fig. 3A. —8-MDCT images of 35-year-old man with Wegener's disease and frank hemoptysis. Image obtained with mediastinal window settings displays extensive middle lobe infiltrate in massive diffuse alveolar hemorrhage.

 


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  		Fig. 3B. —8-MDCT images of 35-year-old man with Wegener's disease and frank hemoptysis. Images show large inhomogeneous right middle lobe and left anterior upper lobe, lingular air-space consolidations with lobular sparing (arrows), and intralobular (black arrowheads, B) and interlobular interstitial thickening, suggestive of recurrent episodes of pulmonary hemorrhage.

 


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  		Fig. 3C. —8-MDCT images of 35-year-old man with Wegener's disease and frank hemoptysis. Images show large inhomogeneous right middle lobe and left anterior upper lobe, lingular air-space consolidations with lobular sparing (arrows), and intralobular (black arrowheads, B) and interlobular interstitial thickening, suggestive of recurrent episodes of pulmonary hemorrhage.

 

Nonhemorrhagic small-vessel vasculitis frequently generates patterns of centrilobular to diffuse ground-glass opacification that reflect inflammatory infiltrate or peripheral consolidation, findings that are characteristic of eosinophilic pneumonia or organizing pneumonia [15] (Figs. 4A and 4B). MDCT occasionally shows evidence of pulmonary hypertension secondary to large arterial occlusive vasculitis or microvascular occlusion in small-vessel vasculitis (Figs. 5A, 5B, 5C, and 5D).



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  		Fig. 4A. —Two cases of Churg-Strauss syndrome. 4-MDCT image of 68-year-old man with Churg-Strauss syndrome shows peribronchovascular and subpleural, almost geographic, air-space consolidations and discrete centrilobular nodules within areas of ground-glass opacity (arrows). There is additional evidence of smooth interlobular septal thickening (arrowheads).

 


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  		Fig. 4B. —Two cases of Churg-Strauss syndrome. Single-detector high-resolution CT image of 43-year-old woman with Churg-Strauss syndrome shows apical ill-defined subpleural air-space consolidations surrounded by coalescing nodular opacities with peripheral ground-glass opacification (asterisks). Note smooth interlobular septal thickening (arrowheads). Patterns suggestive of pulmonary hemorrhage are not present.

 


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  		Fig. 5A. —8-MDCT images of 63-year-old man with rheumatoid arthritis. CT was performed for suspected interstitial lung disease. Diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension was previously unknown. Images show pulmonary hypertension with dilatation of right heart and main pulmonary arteries.

 


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  		Fig. 5B. —8-MDCT images of 63-year-old man with rheumatoid arthritis. CT was performed for suspected interstitial lung disease. Diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension was previously unknown. Images show pulmonary hypertension with dilatation of right heart and main pulmonary arteries.

 


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  		Fig. 5C. —8-MDCT images of 63-year-old man with rheumatoid arthritis. CT was performed for suspected interstitial lung disease. Diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension was previously unknown. Images show centrilobular micronodules (arrowheads, C), peripheral branching linear densities (white arrow, D), discrete subpleural ground-glass opacity (asterisks), and moderate peribronchial thickening (black arrows). Findings are consistent with follicular bronchiolitis with mild degree of nonspecific interstitial pneumonia.

 


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  		Fig. 5D. —8-MDCT images of 63-year-old man with rheumatoid arthritis. CT was performed for suspected interstitial lung disease. Diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension was previously unknown. Images show centrilobular micronodules (arrowheads, C), peripheral branching linear densities (white arrow, D), discrete subpleural ground-glass opacity (asterisks), and moderate peribronchial thickening (black arrows). Findings are consistent with follicular bronchiolitis with mild degree of nonspecific interstitial pneumonia.

 


CT Examination Techniques
Top
 Introduction
 The Role of CT...
 CT Examination Techniques
CT-Morphologic Patterns in...
 Conclusion
 References
 
At our institutions, the parameters for the 16-MDCT scanner (Sensation 16, Siemens Medical Solutions) are usually chosen as slice collimation (SC), 0.75 mm; table feed (TF), 16–24 mm; and reconstruction interval (RI), 0.7 mm. The chest can be covered in 15–30 sec using this examination protocol to yield submillimeter isotropic data sets for subsequent 3D rendering. If the patient is not able to hold his or her breath for a longer period, we recommend a protocol with a wider collimation of 16 x 1.5 mm and a pitch of 16–24. This change in parameters will allow the pulmonary vessels from the dome of the diaphragm to the top of the aortic arch to be covered within 4 sec, thus reducing breathing artifacts.

Unless low-dose scanning is required at our centers, MDCT angiography scans in healthy adults are obtained using 120 kVp at 80–90 mAs. Visualization of subsegmental vessels down to the seventh order is usually excellent on 16-MDCT. For a single-phase contrast bolus, 80–100 mL of nonionic contrast material (270–300 mg I/mL) followed by 40–50 mL of normal saline solution are injected at a flow of 4–5 mL/sec. Automatic bolus tracking with a region of interest in the right ventricle is generally sufficient and reliable in patients with reduced pulmonary circulation times. High-resolution lung images are obtained by applying sharp reconstruction filtering to the same CT angiography data sets.


CT–Morphologic Patterns in Pulmonary Vasculitis
Top
 Introduction
 The Role of CT...
 CT Examination Techniques
 CT-Morphologic Patterns in...
Conclusion
 References
 
Pulmonary Arterial Aneurysms
Pulmonary vasculitic aneurysms occur most importantly in Behçet's disease and Hughes-Stovin syndrome (Table 2). There is an isolated case report on pulmonary artery aneurysms in a patient with giant cell arteritis [16].

Behçet's disease.—Behçet's disease is a chronic multisystemic vasculitis of unknown cause that may affect the lung in up to 8% of patients [17]. The natural history of Behçet's disease is characterized by chronic exacerbations. In a series of 2,179 patients with Behçet's disease, pulmonary arterial aneurysms were encountered in 1.1% [18]. Because aneurysms evolve rapidly, aneurysm size cannot be used to predict the risk of rupture. As a consequence, pulmonary aneurysm formation in untreated patients carries a high mortality rate of 30% within 2 years (mean patient survival, 10 months from onset of hemoptysis) [17, 18]. However, there is more recent evidence of complete resolution of up to 75% of aneurysms in patients receiving immunosuppressant treatment [6, 7]. Aneurysm regression was preceded by thrombus formation, which also disappeared after treatment.

Aneurysms in Behçet's disease are fusiform to saccular, are commonly multiple in number and bilateral, and are located in the lower lobe or main pulmonary arteries [7, 19]. Their size may range up to 7 cm. CT angiography is the method of choice for the detection of aneurysms and characterization of related disease- or therapy-induced changes, such as aneurysmal wall thickening, representing subadventitial hematoma formation; perianeurysmal air-space consolidation or ground-glass opacification, which is indicative of impending rupture [7, 20–22]; or formation of intraluminal thrombus under immunosuppressant therapy. Ancillary findings on CT include wedge-shaped consolidation, probably representing pulmonary hemorrhage or infarcts; peripheral mosaicism, resulting from focal air trapping; embolic small-vessel occlusion or mechanical vascular compression by aneurysms; and organizing or eosinophilic pneumonia [7, 23]. Cases of Behçet's disease with hemoptysis may be easily misdiagnosed as venous thromboembolism, particularly with frequent evidence of deep vein thrombosis, unless aneurysmal disease is recognized.

Hughes-Stovin syndrome.—Hughes-Stovin syndrome is a large-vessel vasculitis affecting pulmonary, and frequently bronchial, arteries and large systemic veins. It is widely accepted as a forme fruste of Behçet's disease because apart from vascular findings, clinical diagnostic criteria of the latter are absent [5, 24, 25]. It occurs predominantly in young adult men between their second and fourth decades. Pathologic features include systemic thrombi in the vena cava, cerebral sinuses, or limb veins; pulmonary artery occlusions due to emboli or thrombi; and one or more segmental pulmonary artery aneurysms, frequently associated with bronchial artery aneurysms. The radiologic features are similar to those of Behçet's disease, and CT angiography is essential for the diagnosis (Figs. 2A and 2B).

Pulmonary Arterial Stenotic Disease
Takayasu's arteritis.—Takayasu's arteritis is a chronic progressive systemic arteritis of unknown cause that classically involves the aorta and its branches. Less known cardiopulmonary complications that may cause unexpected—even catastrophic—morbidity and mortality have been reported in almost 20% and may include isolated pulmonary arteritis in 10% of patients [26]. Pulmonary artery involvement does not appear to have any geographic or racial predilection. Literature data based on angiographic diagnosis suggest a mean incidence approaching 50%, and this figure is likely to be an underestimate [27].

When chronic relapsing nonspecific systemic disease becomes active arterial inflammation, CT will detect wall thickening with late enhancement (Fig. 1). A low-attenuation ring inside the vessel wall has been reported in the aorta, but not in the pulmonary arteries. Subsequent chronic arterial wall ischemia is characterized on CT angiography by central stenoocclusive disease with frequent occurrence of segmental mosaic perfusion [28–30] (Figs. 6A and 6B). Tunaci and coworkers [7] reported on periarterial air-space consolidation and air-space nodules in 54% of patients with parenchymal mosaicism, suggestive of peripheral arterial involvement with plexogenic arteriopathy. However, to date no studies have correlated the established histopathologic features with imaging findings of CT angiography, and it is unknown whether certain types of central lesions (constrictive wall thickening with thrombosis vs organized thrombosis with recanalization) can be differentiated on CT [31].



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  		Fig. 6A. —4-MDCT angiograms of 35-year-old woman with chronic Takayasu's arteritis. Images show dilated arteries in areas of relatively high density of right upper lobe and lingula corresponding to hyperfused lung. There are various segmental branch stenoses (arrows) that are visible on left side.

 


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  		Fig. 6B. —4-MDCT angiograms of 35-year-old woman with chronic Takayasu's arteritis. Images show dilated arteries in areas of relatively high density of right upper lobe and lingula corresponding to hyperfused lung. There are various segmental branch stenoses (arrows) that are visible on left side.

 

The aspect of large arterial constrictive wall thickening should allow differentiation of Takayasu's disease from chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension, which does not feature arterial wall thickening, and from other rare entities without stenoocclusive changes such as extensive thrombosis in Eisenmenger's syndrome combined with gross pulmonary artery dilatation or enhancing expansile tumor thrombus in pulmonary artery sarcoma.

Giant cell arteritis.—Giant cell arteritis, an idiopathic vasculitis involving large arteries, predominantly the extracranial carotid branches and the aorta, may rarely involve central pulmonary arteries. The incidence of pulmonary involvement is unknown. Giant cell arteritis is characterized by a more aggressive clinical course than Takayasu's disease. However, the principal CT appearance of giant cell arteritis is similar to that of Takayasu's arteritis, with evidence of arterial wall thickening, stenosis, and thrombosis (Figs. 7A, 7B, 7C, 7D, and 7E). Ancillary findings in patients with giant cell arteritis include chronic basal reticulation and bulla formation and may differ from those in Takayasu's arteritis, which may show mosaic perfusion more frequently. However, the two disorders cannot be differentiated on the basis of imaging findings alone. From sporadic case reports, pulmonary hypertension appears to be less common in giant cell arteritis than in Takayasu's disease (Figs. 1, 7A, 7B, and 7C).



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  		Fig. 7A. —45-year-old woman with giant cell arteritis. 4-MDCT images show inflammatory thickening and enhancement of pulmonary arterial (arrowheads, A) and ascending aortic l (asterisks, A) wall, high-grade stenosis of right main pulmonary artery, and obliteration of right lower lobe artery (asterisk, B). No aneurysms were found. Patient had normal pulmonary artery pressures.

 


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  		Fig. 7B. —45-year-old woman with giant cell arteritis. 4-MDCT images show inflammatory thickening and enhancement of pulmonary arterial (arrowheads, A) and ascending aortic l (asterisks, A) wall, high-grade stenosis of right main pulmonary artery, and obliteration of right lower lobe artery (asterisk, B). No aneurysms were found. Patient had normal pulmonary artery pressures.

 


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  		Fig. 7C. —45-year-old woman with giant cell arteritis. Pulmonary arterial digital subtraction angiogram shows subtotal occlusion of right main pulmonary artery. Narrowed lumen can be seen as thin line of contrast material (arrowheads). No lobar or segmental pulmonary artery branch is visible.

 


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  		Fig. 7D. —45-year-old woman with giant cell arteritis. Axial 4-MDCT angiogram (D) and anterior coronal thick-slab maximum-intensity-projection image (E) show right pulmonary oligemia due to high-grade stenosis of right main and occlusion of lower lobe arteries. Normal-sized vessels notable in right lung are pulmonary veins, whereas arteries appear of small caliber.

 


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  		Fig. 7E. —45-year-old woman with giant cell arteritis. Axial 4-MDCT angiogram (D) and anterior coronal thick-slab maximum-intensity-projection image (E) show right pulmonary oligemia due to high-grade stenosis of right main and occlusion of lower lobe arteries. Normal-sized vessels notable in right lung are pulmonary veins, whereas arteries appear of small caliber.

 

Acute Focal Pulmonary Hemorrhage
Acute arterial hemorrhage is a well-recognized complication of vasculitis affecting large pulmonary arteries. In Behçet's disease, rupture of a pulmonary artery into a bronchial lumen or into the parenchyma occurs in up to 50% of patients with pulmonary artery aneurysms, which has been reported as the major cause of death [7, 19]. Life-threatening arterial hemorrhage may also occur in patients with advanced Takayasu's arteritis complicated by pulmonary hypertension and rupture of systemic-to-pulmonary artery collaterals and rarely by rupture of vasculitic microaneurysms. Similarly, massive pulmonary hemorrhage has been described in giant cell arteritis as a complication of aneurysmal disease [32]. CT angiography is the noninvasive method of choice to show underlying arterial disease and indicate conservative management or surgery. However, Takayasu's arteritis and Behçet's disease may rarely be complicated by diffuse alveolar hemorrhage as a result of concomitant pulmonary capillaritis [18, 33, 34].

Diffuse Alveolar Hemorrhage
Diffuse alveolar hemorrhage is a common symptom of pulmonary capillaritis, although capillaritis—a term describing a histopathologic finding rather than a unique clinicopathologic syndrome—is, of course, not unanimously present in diffuse alveolar hemorrhage [35–37] (Tables 2 and 3). Patients typically present with hemoptysis, dyspnea, anemia, and bilateral air-space opacification with apical sparing on chest radiographs (Figs. 8A, 8B, and 8C). However, each of these features is nonspecific and, including hemoptysis, may be absent. Therefore, chest radiographs are usually not helpful in the differential diagnosis [37–40]. Although CT is valuable for the assessment of patients with hemoptysis and suspicion of a focal pulmonary parenchymal or vascular abnormality [41, 42], it is of limited use for the evaluation of patients with diffuse alveolar hemorrhage [43].


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  		TABLE 3 Causes of Capillaritis Inducing DPH

 


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  		Fig. 8A. —35-year-old man with Wegener's disease and frank hemoptysis (same patient as in Figs. 3A, 3B, and 3C). Chest radiographs obtained during 24-hr intensive care observation period show bilateral perihilar and lower lobe consolidations that have increased significantly, as shown on B, compared with control image (A). Patient was diagnosed as having diffuse alveolar damage with pulmonary hemorrhage.

 


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  		Fig. 8B. —35-year-old man with Wegener's disease and frank hemoptysis (same patient as in Figs. 3A, 3B, and 3C). Chest radiographs obtained during 24-hr intensive care observation period show bilateral perihilar and lower lobe consolidations that have increased significantly, as shown on B, compared with control image (A). Patient was diagnosed as having diffuse alveolar damage with pulmonary hemorrhage.

 


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  		Fig. 8C. —35-year-old man with Wegener's disease and frank hemoptysis (same patient as in Figs. 3A, 3B, and 3C). Coronal minimum-intensity-projection 8-MDCT image obtained at time of second chest radiograph (B) shows fixed gravity-dependent air-space consolidations, predominantly at bases of upper and lower lobes, and ground-glass infiltrates, predominantly in lower lobes with intralobular and interlobular interstitial thickening.

 

Regardless of the underlying disease, the high-resolution CT findings of diffuse alveolar hemorrhage are essentially similar: In the phase of acute hemorrhage, lobular or lobar areas of ground-glass opacity to consolidation predominate (Figs. 9, 10A, and 10B). In these patients, ground-glass opacity is generated by subtotal alveolar filling with blood and is accompanied by apparent prominence of segmental and subsegmental bronchi [43], which has been referred to as the "dark bronchus" sign. Within 2–3 days, intralobular lines and smooth interlobular septal thickening superimpose on areas of ground-glass opacity (Figs. 3A, 3B, and 3C) and may give rise to a crazy-paving pattern [44]. In the course of hemorrhage resorption, these patterns may resolve or with severe repeated hemorrhage may progress to interstitial fibrosis, which is readily depictable on high-resolution CT. During intervals between chronic recurrent bleeding episodes, ill-defined centrilobular nodules may be present (Figs. 11A and 11B), reflecting intraalveolar accumulation of pulmonary macrophages [43, 45]. Nodules have been reported to be uniform in size (1–3 mm) and are diffusely distributed with no zonal predominance [43].



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  		Fig. 9. —33-year-old woman with Wegener's disease and minor hemoptysis. Single-detector high-resolution CT image depicts distribution of ground-glass opacification, respecting interlobular septa and resulting in patchwork-like pattern in left posterior upper lobe segment. There is impression of gravity-dependent density gradient toward dorsal lung periphery and pronunciation of posterior subsegmental upper lobe bronchus ("dark bronchus" sign).

 


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  		Fig. 10A. —36-year-old woman with history of asthma and acute hemoptysis in Churg-Strauss syndrome. 16-MDCT images show bilateral peripheral lobular areas of ground-glass opacity in basal lower lobes. On lung biopsy, there was evidence of diffuse alveolar hemorrhage, eosinophilic alveolar septal infiltration, and eosinophilic capillaritis.

 


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  		Fig. 10B. —36-year-old woman with history of asthma and acute hemoptysis in Churg-Strauss syndrome. 16-MDCT images show bilateral peripheral lobular areas of ground-glass opacity in basal lower lobes. On lung biopsy, there was evidence of diffuse alveolar hemorrhage, eosinophilic alveolar septal infiltration, and eosinophilic capillaritis.

 


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  		Fig. 11A. —33-year-old woman with acute lupus pneumonitis in systemic lupus erythematosus. 4-MDCT images show widespread centrilobular (arrowheads, B) and diffuse ground-glass opacity, confluent lower lobe air-space consolidation, and minimal pleural effusion. Appearances are nonspecific; diagnosis in patients without clinical diffuse alveolar hemorrhage is by lung biopsy or by exclusion.

 


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  		Fig. 11B. —33-year-old woman with acute lupus pneumonitis in systemic lupus erythematosus. 4-MDCT images show widespread centrilobular (arrowheads, B) and diffuse ground-glass opacity, confluent lower lobe air-space consolidation, and minimal pleural effusion. Appearances are nonspecific; diagnosis in patients without clinical diffuse alveolar hemorrhage is by lung biopsy or by exclusion.

 

Diffuse Alveolar Hemorrhage in Autoimmune-Associated Small-Vessel Vasculitis
Among the collagen vascular diseases, systemic lupus erythematosus is the most common cause of diffuse alveolar hemorrhage [46] with intensity varying from mildly chronic to highly acute [47, 48]. In the study of Zamora and coworkers [47], diffuse alveolar hemorrhage occurred in 3.7% of hospitalized patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, representing 22% of pulmonary complications.

Diffuse alveolar hemorrhage is chiefly caused by an acute necrotizing capillaritis that coincides to varying degrees with acute lupus pneumonitis in life-threatening diffuse alveolar damage [46, 49]. Typically, patients with diffuse alveolar hemorrhage present with rapid-onset tachypnea, cough, fever, hypoxia, and hemoptysis while displaying symptoms of generalized systemic lupus erythematosus vasculitis such as renal failure, arthritis, or rash [46]. However, because of the presence of more advanced concurrent systemic lupus erythematosus morbidity, diffuse alveolar hemorrhage is frequently missed at the time of its manifestation. Conversely, diffuse alveolar hemorrhage may also be the presenting feature of systemic lupus erythematosus [36, 37].

With mortality rates of 50–60%, the prognosis of patients with diffuse alveolar hemorrhage is very poor and acute diffuse alveolar hemorrhage may recur in survivors [46]. CT displays typical nonspecific features of diffuse alveolar hemorrhage with the spectrum of findings ranging from ground-glass opacification to consolidation, coinciding with similar changes of acute systemic lupus erythematosus pneumonitis [44] (Fig. 12). Therefore, in the absence of hemoptysis, lung biopsy, which may reveal immune complexes on immunofluorescence, has been recommended by some authors [39, 50].



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  		Fig. 12. —39-year-old man with Wegener's disease. 4-MDCT image shows bilateral diffusely distributed centrilobular ground-glass nodules (arrowheads), which are consistent with granulomas or inflammatory infiltrates, that coalesce to larger nodular opacities such as at oblique fissure in right upper lobe (arrows).

 

Diffuse alveolar hemorrhage has also been reported in a small number of patients with mixed connective tissue disease, and it occurred predominantly in association with glomerulonephritis [51–53]. However, Schwarz and coworkers [54] reported a patient with isolated pulmonary capillaritis and diffuse alveolar hemorrhage. Similarly, diffuse alveolar hemorrhage has been reported in a small number of cases of rheumatoid arthritis [55, 56], either in association with glomerulonephritis and antineutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibody (ANCA) positivity [52, 55, 57] or as an isolated pulmonary capillaritis without evidence of extrapulmonary vasculitic disease [54]. Otherwise, chronic pulmonary vasculitis in rheumatoid arthritis involves small and medium-sized muscular pulmonary arteries with sparing of pulmonary capillaries and may induce pulmonary arterial hypertension [58, 59] (Figs. 5A, 5B, 5C, and 5D).

Diffuse Alveolar Hemorrhage in ANCA-Associated Small-Vessel Vasculitides
Pulmonary–renal syndrome.—Up to 70% of patients presenting with the pulmonary–renal syndrome, the combination of diffuse alveolar hemorrhage and glomerulonephritis, have positive findings for ANCA [60], with frequent occurrences of different ANCA subtypes in patients with Wegener's granulomatosis, microscopic polyangiitis, Churg-Strauss syndrome, or idiopathic pulmonary–renal syndrome [56, 61–63]. However, irrespective of the underlying condition, patients with ANCA positivity and diffuse alveolar hemorrhage present common histologic features of a pauciimmune hemorrhagic alveolar capillaritis [61].

Wegener's granulomatosis.—Wegener's granulomatosis is an idiopathic inflammatory systemic disease that is characterized by a necrotizing granulomatous vasculitis of the upper and lower respiratory tract, the lungs being involved in approximately 90%; focal necrotizing glomerulonephritis; and small-vessel vasculitis affecting arteries, capillaries, and veins [64]. The mean age of onset is the fifth decade [65–67]. Pulmonary symptoms include hemoptysis, cough, chest pain, and dyspnea [66]. Confinement to the lungs is well recognized and usually precedes systemic manifestations [68].

On lung biopsy in patients with diffuse alveolar hemorrhage, neutrophilic capillaritis similar to that seen in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus can be found and is commonly associated with histologic features specific for Wegener's granulomatosis, such as granulomatous inflammation and necrotizing vasculitis of larger vessels [39]. In a series of 77 patients, diffuse alveolar hemorrhage occurred in six cases (8%) [69]. These patients presented with classic clinical and radiologic signs. In all cases, renal and upper respiratory tract disease was present, and five patients showed involvement of other organs.

Interestingly, the clinical and CT features of some patients with diffuse alveolar hemorrhage seem to differ from those of patients with nonhemorrhagic Wegener's disease because most of these patients present with acute renal failure and diffuse alveolar hemorrhage may precede the occurrence of other high-resolution CT findings [52, 70–77] (Fig. 9). Papiris and coworkers [78] described diffuse air-space consolidation as a predominant CT feature in two patients with Wegener's granulomatosis–associated diffuse alveolar hemorrhage. They also found peribronchovascular nodules in these patients (Figs. 3A, 3B, 3C, 8A, 8B, and 8C).

The prognosis of patients with Wegener's granulomatosis with diffuse alveolar hemorrhage is relatively favorable if the CT diagnosis is confirmed rapidly, prompting the administration of immunosuppressant agents [37, 39, 69, 79]. Nonhemorrhagic pulmonary abnormalities of Wegener's disease include a bronchocentric variant manifesting as chronic bronchiolitis [80], bronchocentric granulomatosis [80, 81], organizing pneumonia [82], and lipoid pneumonia [80]. Typical CT features include multiple nodules with a size-related tendency to cavitate [61, 83–85] (Figs. 13A, 13B, and 13C); peribronchovascular interstitial thickening with mild bronchiectasis in up to 40% [83]; and, less frequently, pleural thickening, pleural effusion, or wedge-shaped pleural-based areas of consolidation [40].



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  		Fig. 13A. —Two cases of microscopic polyangiitis. 4-MDCT image of 43-year-old man with microscopic polyangiitis that was obtained during intermediate phase of disease activity (A) and magnified view (B) of A show bilateral diffuse angiocentric ground-glass nodules (arrowheads), reflecting capillaritis or accumulation of alveolar macrophages due to minimal diffuse alveolar hemorrhage. Neither interlobular nor intralobular interstitial thickening is present.

 


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  		Fig. 13B. —Two cases of microscopic polyangiitis. 4-MDCT image of 43-year-old man with microscopic polyangiitis that was obtained during intermediate phase of disease activity (A) and magnified view (B) of A show bilateral diffuse angiocentric ground-glass nodules (arrowheads), reflecting capillaritis or accumulation of alveolar macrophages due to minimal diffuse alveolar hemorrhage. Neither interlobular nor intralobular interstitial thickening is present.

 


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  		Fig. 13C. —Two cases of microscopic polyangiitis. Single-detector CT image of 62-year-old man with active pulmonary microscopic polyangiitis and hemoptysis shows two lobular areas of ground-glass opacity (arrows) in upper lobes that are consistent with foci of pulmonary hemorrhage.

 

Microscopic polyangiitis.—a nongranulomatous necrotizing systemic vasculitis that affects arterioles, capillaries, and venules and, rarely, medium-sized vessels [86]—is differentiated from Wegener's granulomatosis on clinical grounds and by means of histology from renal or skin biopsy specimens. Glomerulonephritis is almost unanimously (97%) present. Relapsing diffuse alveolar hemorrhage is a key feature of microscopic polyangiitis, occurring in approximately 40% of patients and in almost 30% at presentation. The largest proportion of the 30% mortality rate for patients with microscopic polyangiitis is related to pulmonary vasculitis. The occurrence of diffuse alveolar hemorrhage is of additional value in the differentiation from other vasculitic entities such as polyarteritis nodosa, in which diffuse alveolar hemorrhage is exceedingly rare [87–93] (Figs. 13A, 13B, 13C, 14A, and 14B).



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  		Fig. 14A. —15-year-old boy with polyarteritis nodosa who presented with recurrent episodes of perirenal hemorrhage, gastrointestinal hemorrhage, and dyspnea. CT image shows bilateral lobular and arcade-like ground-glass infiltrates located at branching vessels within central perihilar and peripheral lung regions. Also, note absence of segmental or lobar consolidation pattern, such as in pulmonary hemorrhage. Open lung biopsy showed evidence of focal nonhemorrhagic pneumonitis with vasculitis involving small to medium-sized vessel and sparing of arterioles and capillaries. Digital subtraction angiography (not shown) of pulmonary arteries was negative for aneurysmal disease.

 


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  		Fig. 14B. —15-year-old boy with polyarteritis nodosa who presented with recurrent episodes of perirenal hemorrhage, gastrointestinal hemorrhage, and dyspnea. CT image obtained 2 weeks after initiation of steroid and immunosuppressive therapy shows that infiltrates have almost cleared.

 

Chest symptoms of microscopic polyangiitis include hemoptysis, dry cough, chest pain, and shortness of breath progressing to irreversible air-flow obstruction [86, 94]. The high-resolution CT appearances of diffuse alveolar hemorrhage in microscopic polyangiitis are similar to those in other vasculitic disorders, including signs of ensuing pulmonary fibrosis. However, evidence of interstitial fibrosis may precede the onset of clinical vasculitis by several years and is generally associated with the presence of serum perinuclear ANCA [95]. In stationary clinical phases, high-resolution CT may show normal findings or may display centrilobular ground-glass nodules representing alveolar macrophages, perivascular inflammatory infiltrate, or diffuse interstitial fibrosis (Figs. 4A and 4B).

Churg-Strauss syndrome.—Churg-Strauss syndrome is an ANCA-associated systemic vasculitis affecting small arteries and veins. Clinical features include neuropathy; peripheral blood eosinophilia (> 10%); and, in most cases, increasingly severe asthma [96]. Paranasal sinus abnormality may be present. Renal involvement rarely causes severe symptoms and in most cases consists of segmental glomerulonephritis similar to Wegener's granulomatosis [96]. Before systemic vasculitic involvement occurs, patients usually progress to a stage characterized by transient, nonfixed pulmonary infiltrates on chest radiography due to extravascular eosinophilic pulmonary infiltration.

On CT, multifocal peripheral air-space opacifications that may be consolidative or ground-glass are located predominantly at the lung bases (Figs. 4A and 4B). Furthermore, high-resolution CT features include centrilobular nodules, which are more frequently observed within areas of ground-glass opacification, areas of ground-glass opacity in the periphery of larger nodules, or lobular consolidations; these CT findings have been referred to as the halo sign [97]. Inconsistently, high-resolution CT may display cavitating nodules, smooth interlobular septal thickening, and evidence of airway disease attributable to asthma [98]. Diffuse alveolar hemorrhage is a rare complication of Churg-Strauss syndrome and has been shown to cause large symmetric air-space consolidations on chest radiographs or peripheral areas of ground-glass opacity on CT scans [51, 99] (Figs. 10A and 10B).

Chronic Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension
Pulmonary hypertension occurs in patients with central vasculitic stenoocclusive disease, with a reported incidence in pulmonary Takayasu's disease of up to approximately 50% (Fig. 1). Only a few case reports have described pulmonary hypertension complicating giant cell arteritis or Behçet's disease. Pulmonary hypertension is being reported with increasing incidence in rheumatic diseases, including mixed connective tissue disease and systemic lupus erythematosus (up to 45% and 43%, respectively), and is being reported less frequently in rheumatoid arthritis [40].

Patients with small-vessel pulmonary vasculitis and pulmonary hypertension are generally expected to have a poor prognosis, a 2-year mortality rate of approximately 25–50%, in those with systemic lupus erythematosus and comparable figures in patients with mixed connective tissue disease, sarcoidosis, and probably rheumatoid arthritis. However, there are no routine echocardiographic screening algorithms for pulmonary hypertension in these three entities; therefore, the role of MDCT in diagnosing pulmonary hypertension in individuals who undergo chest CT for search of interstitial lung disease is probably underestimated (Figs. 5A, 5B, 5C, and 5D). In adult patients, a main pulmonary artery diameter exceeding the ascending aortic width or a diameter of 28 mm on CT angiography has a positive predictive value of more than 90% for the presence of pulmonary hypertension.

Currently, there are no known radiologic features that can serve as predictors for the development of pulmonary hypertension in any underlying pulmonary vasculitis. The combined occurrence of pulmonary hypertension and diffuse alveolar hemorrhage should always give rise to the suspicion of underlying pulmonary collagen vascular disease. Conversely, the isolated occurrence of pulmonary hypertension as a presenting clinical feature does not exclude the presence of any of these disorders.


Conclusion
Top
 Introduction
 The Role of CT...
 CT Examination Techniques
 CT-Morphologic Patterns in...
 Conclusion
References
 
MDCT is valuable in the noninvasive diagnosis of patients with pulmonary vasculitis because it shows typical and, in combination with the clinical features, often distinctive morphologic patterns of large- and small-vessel vasculitis. A diagnostic approach using CT should rely on an elaborate clinical background and integrate isotropic CT angiography and high-resolution CT into a single assessment block to warrant MDCT, with its excellent spatial resolution, a central position in the initial evaluation and follow-up of these patients.


References
Top
 Introduction
 The Role of CT...
 CT Examination Techniques
 CT-Morphologic Patterns in...
 Conclusion
 References
 

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