AJR ARRS: Your Link to CME
HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced]


     

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Figures Only
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Karlik, S. J.
Right arrow Articles by Chhem, R.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Karlik, S. J.
Right arrow Articles by Chhem, R.
Social Bookmarking
Add to CiteULike   Add to Complore   Add to Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us   Add to Digg   Add to Reddit   Add to Technorati  
What's this?
DOI:10.2214/AJR.07.2087
AJR 2007; 189:W105-W110
© American Roentgen Ray Society

Original Research

MRI and Multinuclear MR Spectroscopy of 3,200-Year-Old Egyptian Mummy Brain

Stephen J. Karlik1, Robert Bartha2, Karen Kennedy1 and Rethy Chhem1

1 Paleoradiology Research Unit, Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London Health Sciences Center, University Hospital, 339 Windermere Rd., London, ON N6A 5A5, Canada.
2 Imaging Research Laboratory, Robarts Research Institute, London, ON, Canada.

Received November 21, 2006; accepted after revision March 27, 2007.

 
Address correspondence to S. J. Karlik (skarlik{at}uwo.ca).

WEB

This is a Web exclusive article.


Abstract
Top
 Abstract
Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 
OBJECTIVE. Our objective was to present the MR and MR spectroscopy imaging findings of a 3,200-year-old preserved brain from an Egyptian mummy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS. In this work, the morphology of the intact specimen was examined by MRI at 1.5 T. Chemistry of the intact specimens was studied by proton spectroscopy at 1.5 T and sodium nuclear MR (NMR) spectroscopy at 4.0 T. Biopsies from the temporal lobes were analyzed by proton and phosphorus NMR spectroscopy (14 T) or rehydrated and stained for paleohistologic study.

RESULTS. MRI showed a heterogeneous brain with convolutions, gyri, and air pockets. Paleohistology showed a uniform, disorganized cerebral substance with numerous eosinophilic structures and argentophilic granules. Spectroscopic studies identified bound sodium ions in the specimen and phosphate and free fatty acids in extracts.

CONCLUSION. MR techniques are a nondestructive method for the analysis of adipocere observed in a preserved mummy's brain.

Keywords: adipocere • Egypt • MRI • mummy • NMR spectroscopy


Introduction
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 
Imaging mummified samples remains a technologic and logistic challenge. CT has been used to successfully image mummified remains noninvasively [1-7]. It was possible to use CT to differentiate cerebral gray and white matter in high-altitude Argentine mummies [4], and Hoffman and Hudgins [5] were able to visualize the desiccated brain in female Egyptian mummies from which the intracranial contents had not been removed. However, MRI, based on water protons, has met with only partial success, with a limited subset of mummified tissues. In early reports of mummy MRI, no signal or image was obtained from a variety of pulse sequences [3, 8]. To obtain MR images from the extremities of a Peruvian mummy, Piepenbrink and coworkers [9] needed to rehydrate the specimen in 20% acetone in water. Although MRI was able to visualize the brain after a corpse had lain 13 months in a river bed, the brain was not fully mummified and showed evidence of putrefaction [10].

An issue that complicates MRI detectability of mummified tissue is the conversion of normal water-laden tissues to adipocere, a firm waxy substance [11]. The formation of adipocere in a desiccated environment (Egyptian desert) compounds the problem compared with moisture-laden peat or bog conditions [12]. Modern chemical analysis within the context of forensic sciences shows that adipocere is the result of hydrolysis of triglycerides into glycerin and free fatty acids [13]. Although this suggests that MRI of an ancient desiccated mummy brain would detect only lipid materials, we found that bound water remained in the sample and that it was possible to generate images of such an ancient brain (Nakht, a 16-year-old weaver from the XX Dynasty) by using fast imaging techniques. Furthermore, multinuclear spectroscopy was able to detect sodium and phosphate ions and numerous organic biochemicals from temporal lobe extracts.


Materials and Methods
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
Results
 Discussion
 References
 
Description of Mummy Brain
Nakht was a male teenage weaver who lived in the XX Egyptian Dynasty. The two cerebral hemispheres of the brain were removed in 1975 when a dissection of the mummy was performed [1, 14, 15]. The specimens, shown in Figure 1, had a firm waxy texture consistent with conversion to an adipocerous material [16].


Figure 1
View larger version (138K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
  		Fig. 1 —Photograph of brain specimen from teenage boy who lived in XX Egyptian Dynasty.

 
MRI Scanning
Images were acquired using a 1.5-T TwinSpeed MR scanner (GE Healthcare) with two 3-inch (7.62-cm) diameter surface coils and a phased-array combiner. A set of three-plane fast gradient-echo images was acquired to localize the brain. Because the sample had a solid consistency, MRI parameters were selected that were akin to those used for imaging solid anatomic structures and had very short TR and TE. Two-dimensional coronal T1-weighted fast spoiled gradient-recalled (FSPGR) acquisition in the steady state (GRASS) images were then acquired (TR/TE, 9.9/4.4; slice thickness, 5 mm; flip angle, 20°; field of view, 16 cm; 40 averages; in-plane resolution, 0.625 x 0.833 mm). These were followed by axial 3D FSPGR (inversion time, 300 milliseconds; 9.9/4.4; flip angle, 20°; field of view, 16 cm; 8 averages; and slice thickness, 5 mm). A TE of 4.4 milliseconds produced the greatest signal intensity. Acquisition of axial T2-weighted images was also attempted using single-shot fast spin-echo (714/63; slice thickness, 5 mm; in-plane resolution, 0.78 x 0.78 mm; number of excitations, 0.57).


Figure 2
View larger version (98K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
  		Fig. 2 —Coronal views of two hemispheres obtained at 1.5-T using fast spoiled gradient-recalled sequence, two 3-inch (7.62-cm) coils, and phased-array combiner. Brain has heterogeneous appearance with internal laminar structure and internal pockets with low signal intensity.

 
MR Spectroscopy
Stimulated echo acquisition mode (STEAM)-localized 1H spectra were acquired on the 1.5-T TwinSpeed MR scanner (1,200/30; averages, 1,024) with and without water suppression using an eight-channel head and neck coil. The voxel (41 mL) encompassed portions of both hemispheres and a reference tube containing saline. The water-suppressed spectrum was not interpretable because the peaks of interest overlapped with the phantom water signal (4.7 ppm). The scanner would not shim or execute the acquisition in the absence of the phantom. The free induction decay (FID) values were transferred from the scanner and processed using fitMAN software [17]. The saline phantom spectrum was line-broadened using a 5-Hz exponential filter to mimic the altered field homogeneity produced by the presence of the mummy brain. A nonlocalized 23Na spectrum (10-kHz bandwidth, 256 averages) was acquired on the mummy brain using a 4.0-T Varian Unity Inova whole-body MRI scanner with a Siemens Sonata 16-element hybrid birdcage radiofrequency coil in the absence of a phantom. Finally, one-dimensional 1H and 31P spectra were acquired from mummy tissue extracts on a 14-T Varian Inova actively shielded spectrometer. Five-milligram portions of temporal tissue were extracted for 14 days into 1 mL of deuterium oxide (D2O) or deuterated chloroform (CDCl3) and the clear supernatants were decanted into 5-mm nuclear MR (NMR) tubes for analysis.

Histology
Dissected temporal brain samples were rehydrated in phosphate-buffered saline and 10% glycerol for 14 days before processing and paraffin embedding [18]. Five-micron sections were cut and stained with H and E, solochrome cyanin R, and Bielschowsky method silver stain.


Results
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
Discussion
 References
 
The first-ever successful MR images of an ancient mummy brain are illustrated in Figure 2 (coronal view) and Figure 3 (axial view). Obtaining these images was technically challenging, and the specimens could be viewed only in the T1-weighted sequence. Despite the waxy appearance of the brain hemispheres consistent with the formation of fatty adipocere, images were formed from residual water in the tissue. Presumably, these water molecules had very short T1 relaxation times because no signal saturation was noted in the T1-weighted images despite very short TR and TE; short T2 relaxation times were also presumed because no signal was detected in the T2-weighted images. The brain images were quite homogeneous in signal intensity and contained surprising internal structure (Figs. 2 and 3). Coronal views (Fig. 2) appeared almost laminar in appearance, perhaps reminiscent of the original cerebral gyri. The internal structure in both imaging planes was complex, with the low-signal areas likely to be air spaces resulting from tissue shrinkage.


Figure 3
View larger version (152K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
  		Fig. 3 —Axial images of mummy brain hemispheres obtained at 1.5 T show variable signal intensity, irregular pockets of low signal intensity, and complex internal structure.

 
The localized proton spectrum of the samples (Fig. 4) revealed two principal water signals in the mummy brain from which the image was obtained appearing at 4.31 and 4.86 ppm. The peak observed at 4.70 ppm in this water-unsuppressed spectrum corresponds to water from the saline phantom (Fig. 4), which was not present for the acquisition of the images shown in Figures 2 and 3. Neither of the resonances at 4.31 and 4.86 ppm nor the smaller peaks observed at 3.64 and 5.23 ppm were indicative of lipid protons.


Figure 4
View larger version (14K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
  		Fig. 4 —Localized 2D stimulated echo acquisition mode proton spectrum (1.5 T) of intact mummy brain hemispheres (upper panel) and saline phantom (lower panel) obtained without water suppression. Circular saline phantom can be clearly seen in inset and its signal is at 4.7 ppm in both spectra. Two additional large peaks appear adjacent to water at 4.31 and 4.86 ppm with small shoulders at 3.64 and 5.23 ppm.

 
All three pathologic stains revealed a predominantly homogeneous appearance (Fig. 5A, 5B, 5C, 5D, 5E, 5F, 5G, 5H), although numerous hole artifacts were seen in the tissue that could be due to mummification, rehydration, or fixation and processing for histology. In the solochrome cyanin R-stained slides, a uniform composition of the tissue (Fig. 5A) was accompanied by a few hypostained globular areas, some of which displayed a granular appearance (Figs. 5B and 5C). These could be artifactual. In this stain, myelin lipids would have appeared blue, but there was no evidence of such staining. In the H and E-stained sections, eosinophilic structures were observed (Figs. 5D, 5E, 5F). These could be found surrounding some of the holes (Fig. 5D) but were also linear in morphology (Figs. 5E and 5F), reminiscent of vascular structures. Numerous argentophilic granules were observed in the Bielschowsky method-stained slides (Figs. 5G and 5H). These particles were seen in isolation or en masse in large concentrations and could represent calcification resulting from calcium desequestration during mummification. Surprisingly, even after 3,000 years, the mummified and adipocerous brain retained some residual morphologic character on a microscopic level. Because the sample appeared homogeneous on imaging, these microscopic features do not appear to contribute to the MR images.


Figure 5
View larger version (139K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
  		Fig. 5A —Solochrome cyanin R-, H and E- and Bielschowsky method silver-stained sections of rehydrated right temporal tissue dissected from mummy brain. (All micrographs x400) Solochrome cyanin R staining. Tissue appears uniform in solochrome cyanin R sections (A) except for occasional lacunar areas showing pale staining (arrows, B and C).

 

Figure 6
View larger version (151K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
  		Fig. 5B —Solochrome cyanin R-, H and E- and Bielschowsky method silver-stained sections of rehydrated right temporal tissue dissected from mummy brain. (All micrographs x400) Solochrome cyanin R staining. Tissue appears uniform in solochrome cyanin R sections (A) except for occasional lacunar areas showing pale staining (arrows, B and C).

 

Figure 7
View larger version (149K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
  		Fig. 5C —Solochrome cyanin R-, H and E- and Bielschowsky method silver-stained sections of rehydrated right temporal tissue dissected from mummy brain. (All micrographs x400) Solochrome cyanin R staining. Tissue appears uniform in solochrome cyanin R sections (A) except for occasional lacunar areas showing pale staining (arrows, B and C).

 

Figure 8
View larger version (129K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
  		Fig. 5D —Solochrome cyanin R-, H and E- and Bielschowsky method silver-stained sections of rehydrated right temporal tissue dissected from mummy brain. (All micrographs x400) Structures in H and E-stained sections (arrows) appear linear in nature and appear to line some of tissue holes. Rest of tissue was uniformly stained.

 

Figure 9
View larger version (130K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
  		Fig. 5E —Solochrome cyanin R-, H and E- and Bielschowsky method silver-stained sections of rehydrated right temporal tissue dissected from mummy brain. (All micrographs x400) Structures in H and E-stained sections (arrows) appear linear in nature and appear to line some of tissue holes. Rest of tissue was uniformly stained.

 

Figure 10
View larger version (146K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
  		Fig. 5F —Solochrome cyanin R-, H and E- and Bielschowsky method silver-stained sections of rehydrated right temporal tissue dissected from mummy brain. (All micrographs x400) Structures in H and E-stained sections (arrows) appear linear in nature and appear to line some of tissue holes. Rest of tissue was uniformly stained.

 

Figure 11
View larger version (132K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
  		Fig. 5G —Solochrome cyanin R-, H and E- and Bielschowsky method silver-stained sections of rehydrated right temporal tissue dissected from mummy brain. (All micrographs x400) Bielschowsky method-stained sections also show dense deposits outlining margins of some holes in tissue (G) with substantial deposits of granular material throughout tissue (H).

 

Figure 12
View larger version (122K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
  		Fig. 5H —Solochrome cyanin R-, H and E- and Bielschowsky method silver-stained sections of rehydrated right temporal tissue dissected from mummy brain. (All micrographs x400) Bielschowsky method-stained sections also show dense deposits outlining margins of some holes in tissue (G) with substantial deposits of granular material throughout tissue (H).

 

The 4.0-T nonlocalized sodium spectrum from the two hemispheres (Fig. 6, upper panel) revealed a single symmetric broad resonance (2,071 Hz, full width at half maximum). No phantom was used for this study and there was an absence of signal when the brain was removed (Fig. 6, lower panel). This result suggests that the sodium ions were in a single-bound environment with a short correlation time ({tau}c) in the intact specimen.


Figure 13
View larger version (13K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
  		Fig. 6 —Upper panel shows 23Na spectrum obtained at 4 T of intact specimens. There is single broad resonance with linewidth of 50 ppm. Lower panel is identical acquisition without brain in coil.

 
NMR spectroscopy on the tissue extractions revealed diverse soluble components. The 31P spectrum revealed a single symmetric peak (0.809 ppm) in the D2O extract (Fig. 7). This observation is consistent with the recovery of phosphate ions from the mummified tissue.


Figure 14
View larger version (12K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
  		Fig. 7 —Proton-coupled 31P spectrum obtained at 14 T from deuterium oxide extract of temporal brain shows single resonance at 0.9 ppm with linewidth of 20 Hz. Inset shows spectrum from -3 to 3 ppm.

 
The proton spectrum at 600 MHz in CDCl3 showed numerous components (Fig. 8). Because we did not treat the samples to remove metal ions, the narrow linewidths observed suggest that the samples did not have paramagnetic contamination. Analysis of the one-dimensional spectrum revealed numerous resonances consistent with the presence of free fatty acids [19]. Peaks at 0.89, 1.24, and 2.31 ppm were consistent with the identification of palmitic and stearic acids and hydroxystearic acid and likely contributed to these resonances and the multiplet observed at 1.60 ppm. Multiplets at 1.99 and 5.35 ppm (double bond) identified residual unhydrogenated oleic acid, and these assignments are annotated on the spectrum (Fig. 8).


Figure 15
View larger version (15K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
[as a PowerPoint slide]
  		Fig. 8 —Proton spectrum at 14 T of deuterated chloroform extract of temporal brain divided into 0.5- to 2.5-ppm and 4.0- to 7.5-ppm sections.

 
There were additional singlets observed at 0.66 and 1.01 ppm, and numerous multiplets of unknown origin at 1.84, 1.95, 4.60, and 7.05 ppm. A singlet was observed at 7.25 ppm due to residual protons in the CDCl3 solvent. Thus, proton spectroscopy of the CDCl3 extract revealed the presence of free fatty acids, which are characteristic of adipocere [11], as well as several other biochemicals. When adipocere was found on examination of a corpse after 3-4 months in an aqueous environment, two 9-chloro-10-methoxy(9-methoxy-10-chloro) fatty acids were found to constitute 7.2% of the lipids [20]. We cannot confirm the presence of these fatty acids because two characteristic singlets (3.4 and 3.7 ppm) and two multiplets (3.3 and 4.0 ppm) were absent from the spectrum of our extract.


Discussion
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
References
 
Using a strategy that was optimized for tissues with very short water relaxation times, it has been possible to image the internal structures of a mummified Egyptian brain. Because adipocere has been considered to be composed of lipid materials, we assumed that the images would be based on the hydrolyzed lipids. Un-expectedly, the desiccated tissue continued to bear considerable bound water in at least two principal environments, and none of the proton NMR peaks observed from the specimen corresponded to free lipids. Because bound water had a very short T1 relaxation time, it was only possible to visualize the specimens with sequences that were optimized for fast imaging with very short TRs and TEs.

Paleohistology revealed primarily homogeneous tissue on rehydration. All the samples showed residual tissue shrinkage, which resulted in tissues that had holelike artifacts. Despite this limitation, there were structural anomalies observed in the solochrome cyanin R- and H and E-stained sections. The exact identification of these hypostained lacunar structures and the thin linear eosinophilic threads is unknown. Furthermore, the silver stain revealed a plethora of staining, with some semicircular structures observed that were similar to those stained with eosin. Again, the exact nature of the structures identified is unknown at this time, but calcification is a possible interpretation. Calcium ions would be released from the tissue because the normal proteins, subcellular structures, and membranes were altered during mummification. Similar granular structures have been attributed to Nissl bodies in cresyl violet-stained sections from a desiccated mummified brain [19]. The uniformity of the MR images from the specimen was reflective of the absence of myelin staining in the solochrome cyanin R sections.

Spectroscopy both on the specimens and on extracts revealed additional compositional information. Sodium ions were detected in the specimen and phosphate was extracted using D2O. In addition, the proton NMR studies of the extract were informative regarding the heterogeneity of available compounds in the biopsied material. Previous studies on the composition of adipocere identify certain specific compounds because the triglycerides are hydrolyzed to glycerol and free fatty acids. At first, stearic and oleic acids, then their metabolites palmitic, hydroxystearic, and oxostearic acids are typically identified in this material [11]. Proton spectroscopy of the extracts was consistent with the detection of these compounds, but gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry would be needed to verify the identity of all components of this complex extract. We were unable to confirm the presence of 9-chloro-10-methoxy(9-methoxy-10-chloro) fatty acids [20] in our extract. The characteristics of this sample of adipocere produced in a short time (3-4 months) under water may be different from those produced when the mummy brain was desiccated over 3,000 years. Nonetheless, either insufficient quantities or the solidified structure of the intact specimen prevented detection by proton spectroscopy at 1.5 T using our acquisition parameters.

The MRI and MR spectroscopy results obtained at 1.5 T have potential limitations for detection of the fatty component of adipocere. The TR and TE values that were successful in imaging residual bound water may not have been optimal for detection of the lipid components identified in the chloroform extract. Ul-trashort TE imaging [21-23] may have the ability to detect the fatty components of adipocere, particularly if the hydrolyzed fatty acids have a short {tau}c. Although the scanner parameters permitted a minimum TE of 1.8 milliseconds at a TR of 9.9 milliseconds, our TE choice of 4.4 milliseconds produced the highest signal for imaging. We were unable to produce any images using T2-weighted sequences that would also need to be further optimized to visualize very short T2 species. Similarly, the in vivo proton spectrum was performed at a TE of 30 milliseconds, although the scanner, which was optimized for patient brain studies, permitted TEs of 15, 30, or 144 milliseconds. It is possible that studies using much shorter TE values could have detected lipid components with shorter T2 or {tau}c values [24].

Adipocere is a generic term for the end product of the alteration of the soft tissues of corpses into a grayish-white, soft, creamlike substance, which over time becomes a harder solid and resistant mass. The full decomposition of this material has not been described, but chemical studies are clear that oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids are initially the main constituents, followed by triglyceride hydrolysis, beta oxidation, and hydration of fatty acids to also yield hydroxystearic and oxostearic acids. These constituent changes, accompanied by saponification with calcium and magnesium, can cause solidification of the tissues [11]. This was the type of specimen examined in these studies. The process of mummification under arid and hot conditions in the Egyptian desert produced an unyielding material that was waxlike in consistency. According to Elliot-Smith [25], all of 500 skulls from a prehistorical burial site in Egypt had a preserved brain because of burial in sand in a well-drained location. We observed the same phenomenon with this specimen: mummification by drying with shrinkage [16]. This was also seen in a naturally mummified brain from South Africa [18], in which CT examination was correlated with a total loss of internal structure, as we have seen with MRI. This type of MRI may also be effective in adipocere produced under other ambient conditions because we appeared to image the retained water molecules.

In this study, MRI and multinuclear spectroscopy were used to study cerebral specimens from an ancient mummy to show their morphology and chemical composition and the taphonomic changes that occurred in the desiccated brain. MRI findings were consistent with the uniform appearance of stained sections of specimens extracted from the temporal lobes of the mummy's brain. At a microscopic level, the tissue retained some structures reminiscent of vessel morphology and possible calcium deposits that do not appear visible on the MR images. Although the tissue contained a variety of free fatty acids, they were not detectable in the intact specimen with the acquisition parameters used. We view these studies as works in progress and affirm that MRI and MR spectroscopy can indeed be used to provide additional new insight into mummified tissues.


Acknowledgments
 
We thank Roberta Shaw of the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, for having facilitated access to the specimen.


References
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 

  1. Lewin PE, Harwood-Nash D. Computerized axial tomography in medical archeology. Paleopathology Newsletter1977; 17:8 -9[Medline]
  2. Shin DH, Choi YH, Shin KJ, et al. Radiological analysis on a mummy from a medieval tomb in Korea. Ann Anat2003; 185:377 -382[Medline]
  3. Notman DN, Tashjian J, Aufderheide AC, et al. Modern imaging and endoscopic biopsy techniques in Egyptian mummies. AJR1986; 146:93 -96[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  4. Previgliano CH, Ceruti C, Reinhard J, et al. Radiologic evaluation of the Llullaillaco mummies. AJR 2003;181 : 1473-1479[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  5. Hoffman H, Hudgins PA. Head and skull base features of nine Egyptian mummies: evaluation with high-resolution CT and reformation techniques. AJR 2002;178 : 1367-1376[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  6. Cesarani F, Martina MC, Ferraris A, et al. Whole-body three-dimensional multidetector CT of 13 Egyptian human mummies. AJR 2003; 180:597 -606[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  7. Hoffman H, Torres WE, Ernst RD. Paleoradiology: advanced CT in the evaluation of nine Egyptian mummies. RadioGraphics2002; 22:377 -385[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  8. Kircos LT, Teeter E. Studying the mummy of Petosiris. News and Notes: The Oriental Institute (University of Chicago) 1991; 131:1 -6
  9. Piepenbrink H, Frahm J, Haase A, Matthaei D. Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging of mummified corpses. Am J Phys Anthropol 1986; 70:27 -28[CrossRef][Medline]
  10. Jackowski C, Thali M, Sonnenschein M, et al. Adipocere in postmortem imaging using multislice computed tomography (MSCT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Am J Forensic Med Pathol2005; 26:360 -364[CrossRef][Medline]
  11. Fiedler S, Graw M. Decomposition of buried corpses, with special reference to the formation of adipocere. Naturewissenschaften 2003;90 : 291-300[CrossRef]
  12. Fiedler S, Schneckenberger K, Grwa M. Characterization of soils containing adipocere. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol2004; 47:561 -568[CrossRef][Medline]
  13. Neureiter F, Pietrusky F, Schutt E. Handwoterbuch der Gerichtlichen Medizin. Berlin, Germany: Springer,1940
  14. Lewin PK. Mummies I have known: a pediatrician's venture in the field of paleopathology. Am J Dis Child1977; 131:349 -350[Abstract]
  15. Lewin PK, Harwood-Nash D. X-ray computed tomography on an ancient Egyptian brain. IRCS Medical Science1977; 5:78
  16. Oakley KP. Ancient preserved brains. Man1960; 60:90 -91[CrossRef]
  17. Bartha R, Drost DJ, Williamson PC. Factors affecting the quantification of short echo in-vivo 1H MR spectra: prior knowledge, peak elimination, and filtering. NMR Biomed1999; 12:205 -216[CrossRef][Medline]
  18. Eklektos N, Dayal MR, Manger PR. A forensic case study of a naturally mummified brain from the bushveld of South Africa. J Forensic Sci 2006; 51:498 -503[CrossRef][Medline]
  19. Pouchert CJ, Behnke J. Aldrich library of 13C and 1H FT NMR spectra. Milwaukee, WI: Aldrich Chemical Company, 1993
  20. Takatori T, Yamaoka A. Separation and identification of 9-chloro-10-methoxy(9-methoxy-10-chloro) hexadecanoic and octadecanoic acids in adipocere. Forensic Sci Int 1979;14 : 63-75[CrossRef][Medline]
  21. Waldman A, Rees JH, Brock CS, et al. MRI of the brain with ultra-short echo-time pulse sequences. Neuroradiology2003; 45:887 -892[CrossRef][Medline]
  22. Robson MD, Bydder GM. Clinical ultrashort echo time imaging of bone and other connective tissues. NMR Biomed2006; 19:765 -780[CrossRef][Medline]
  23. Tyler DJ, Robson MD, Henkelman RM, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging with ultrashort TE (UTE) pulse sequences: technical considerations. J Magn Reson Imaging 2007;25 : 279-289[CrossRef][Medline]
  24. Liimatainen T, Hakumaki J, Tkac I, Grohn O. Ultra-short echo time spectroscopic imaging in rats: implications for monitoring lipids in glioma gene therapy. NMR Biomed 2006;9 : 554-559
  25. Elliot-Smith G. On the natural preservation of the brain in the ancient Egyptians. J Anat Phys 1902;36 : 375-381

Add to CiteULike CiteULike   Add to Complore Complore   Add to Connotea Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us Del.icio.us   Add to Digg Digg   Add to Reddit Reddit   Add to Technorati Technorati    What's this?



This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Figures Only
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Karlik, S. J.
Right arrow Articles by Chhem, R.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Karlik, S. J.
Right arrow Articles by Chhem, R.
Social Bookmarking
Add to CiteULike   Add to Complore   Add to Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us   Add to Digg   Add to Reddit   Add to Technorati  
What's this?

HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS